Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrifices

Ancient Egyptians like many cultures believed in an afterlife and much of what remains of their civilization reflects this because only the temples, tombs, and other religious structures survive well. One belief that was at the center of Egyptian beliefs about life after death was the belief in the ka. The ka was believed by the Egyptians to be one's life source, essence, and soul, which would live on in the afterlife. Egyptians also believed that the ka had to have a body to return to, and because of this belief, they would mummify their dead. Egyptians also took precautionary measures, in case their body did not survive, by commissioning ka statues; statues of the deceased that were buried in the tomb, along with the body, and would serve as a replacement if the body decayed beyond recognition. It was especially important to ensure the comfort of the king's ka in the afterlife, due to his prominent position both in politics and religion.[1]

Egyptians looked at the afterlife as a continuation of this life and believed that they would be able to enjoy many of the same activities. They also held the belief that they would be able to maintain the same social hierarchy.[2] Egyptians, especially upper-class Egyptians, were very preoccupied with making sure their life to come would be as comfortable, if not more comfortable, than their life on earth.[2] Excavated tombs were found to contain food, painted murals, statues, jewelry, and various other items.

Egyptian pharaohs held the highest positions in Egyptian society, both in religious and political spheres. Kings were revered as gods in human form.[1] Ellen F. Morris, a professor in Columbia University's Department of Anthropology, suggests that pharaohs used retainer sacrifices as a way to flaunt their power.[3] She also argues that pharaohs would have to have significant power, in both a political and religious sense, to convince their subjects that it was worth sacrificing their lives on earth for the pharaoh and his comfort in the next life. In addition, their families would have to be convinced that the pharaoh's comfort in the life to come was important enough to allow their loved ones to be sacrificed.[3] This would not be possible if those being sacrificed did not have a very strong belief in the life to come. Egypt's government had to convince the people that the king was a god, and what belonged to him in his life on earth, belonged to him in the afterlife also.[3] Dr. David O'Connor, from New York University Institute of Fine Arts, proposes that subjects of a king being willing to escort him into the afterlife demonstrates that a change had occurred in the way the Egyptians viewed their king.[4]

The purpose of retainer sacrifices was "to enable the wealthy noble[s and pharaohs] to enjoy the same kind of life-style after death as [they] had during [their] lifetime.[2] They also wanted to maintain the same social status they had enjoyed on earth; a social hierarchy that was based upon being served by others.[2] Pharaohs used retainer sacrifices to reinforce the power of the position of the pharaoh, by showing the control they had over their subjects.[3] Pharaohs also used retainer sacrifices to help communicate the idea that the state was literally worth dying for.[3]

Pharaohs' subjects viewed the pharaoh as a living god, the god Horus. Once the pharaoh died, he became the god Osiris, the king of eternity.[5] While some retainers' deaths appear to have been taken for granted, other sacrifices appear to have raised the status and wealth of some retainers in the afterlife. This can be inferred from the wealth they were interred with and their graves' position in relation to the king's grave. This also suggests that the retainers agreed to be sacrificed to raise their social status and wealth in the afterlife.[3] Matthew Adams, an archeologist from the University of Pennsylvania and the associate director of an expedition made by New York University, Yale and the University of Pennsylvania, suggests that the ancient Egyptians may have viewed being sacrificed at a king's death a sure way to reach eternal life.[4] For a civilization so centered on the life to come, a guarantee of eternal happiness and security would seem a likely motivation for a retainer to agree to be sacrificed.

King Aha, the second pharaoh of the first dynasty of Egypt, was also known as King Hor-Aha. According to Ellen Morris, he had thirty-five retainer sacrifices in his tomb, and twelve in three surrounding tombs enclosed in his funerary complex.[3] Two other accounts from popular sources are given regarding the number of sacrificed retainers found in King Aha's funerary complex. One account found in The New York Times, was given by an archeological team organized by New York University, Yale, and the University of Pennsylvania. These universities began a project to excavate the funerary complex of King Aha. They found six graves near a mortuary ritual site of King Aha. Five of the six graves contained "skeletons of court officials, servants, and artisans that appear to have been sacrificed to meet the king's needs in the afterlife.[4] Another account is given by National Geographic, in an article entitled "Abydos: Life and Death at the Dawn of Egyptian Civilization." In this account, six retainer sacrifices were buried inside of Aha's tomb with him, and thirty-five were buried in surrounding tombs inside his funerary complex.[7]

King Djer, Aha's son and successor, had 318 retainer sacrifices buried in his tomb, and 269 retainer sacrifices buried in enclosures surrounding his tomb.[3] Dr. O'Connor believes that the more than 200 graves found in King Djer's funerary complex contain retainer sacrifices, as well.[4] According to Ancient Egypt: A Social History, King Djer was buried with over 580 retainers. It is highly unlikely that all these retainers died of natural causes at the same time, suggesting that these retainers were sacrificed upon the death of King Djer.[6] According to the National Geographic's article, however, 569 retainers were sacrificed for King Djer.[7]

King Djet had 174 sacrificed retainers buried around his tomb at Abydos and sixty-two retainers buried around his tomb at Saqqara.[8]

After the death of King Den, about 230 individuals died simultaneously for "something or someone of extreme importance".[3] Once again, it is highly unlikely that such a large number of individuals would die all at once of natural causes and it can be inferred that these individuals were sacrificed to serve King Den in the afterlife. Perhaps this reflected the varied court positions in the pharaoh's kingdom, possibly including family members, noble court members, and servants.

The funerary complex of King Qaa helps illustrate the decline of retainer sacrifices. It is estimated that only thirty retainers were sacrificed after the death of King Qaa.