Govindgiri

Govindgiri engaged himself in "improving the moral character, habits, and religious practices" of the adivasis.[7] He organized the sampa sabha (Hindi: सम्प सभा) with the intent of serving the adivasi people.[1][8] Govindgiri preached monotheism, observance of temerance, forsaking crimes, following agriculture, giving up beliefs in superstition, etc.[7] He called upon adivasis to adopt the more of the upper castes and "to behave like sahukars (moneylenders).[9] Drawing on the ritual practices of the Shaivite sect Dasnami Panth, Govindgiri encouraged his followers to tend a dhuni (fire pit) and hoist a nishan (flag) outside their houses.[9][7]

On the matter of women's rights, Govindgiri critiqued upper-caste treatment of women and argued that adivasi practices were much better for women.[10] He declared Rajputs and Brahmins inferior in this respect because they degraded women, citing the Rajput custom of female infanticide and the Rajput and Brahmin prohibition against widow remarriage.[7]

Govindgiri's teachings were originally aimed at social and religious reform but he gradually "developed a strong critique of hierarchy and exploitation"[9] of the adivasis by ruling classes. He advised the adivasis that their destitution was caused by princely rulers and jagirdars.[9] Govindgiri preached that Bhils were the rightful owners of the land and they also the right to rule over it.[9] He envisioned the establishment of a Bhil Raj (Bhil state) in the hills of Sunth and Banswara states, restoring a Bhil kingdom that existed eight hundred years back.[9]

Within a short time, Govindgiri garnered a large following among the adivasis in the states of Sunth, Banswara, Dungarpur and the British districts of Panch Mahals.[11] He faced active opposition from the rulers of the states in which he preached.[7] Reasons cited for the opposition include decreased revenues from liquor sales (because of Govindgiri forbidding liquor to his disciples) and the subversion of the rulers' authority because of Govindgiri's growing influence.[7]

Govindgiri's activities after 1907 received opposition from state officials and liquor contractors, and the Dungarpur State arrested him in late-1912 or early-1913.[12] The state accused him of deceiving his followers, confiscated his savings and pressured him to stop his movement by imprisoning his wife and child (or children).[7] However, he was released in April 1913 without being tried and ordered to leave Dungarpur State.[7]

Govindgiiri was imprisoned by the ruler of Dungarpur but, apprehending a commotion among the adivasi people, released in April 1913 and exiled from Dungarpur state.[7] Between then and October 1913, Govindgiri moved from one village to another under harassment by local rulers.[7] After an attempt by the ruler of Idar to capture Govindgiri while he was in the Idar territory, Govindgiri and his adherents formed a defensive position at Mangarh, a hillock on the borders of the former states of Banswara and Sunth.[13]

On October 31, 1913, Govindgiri adherents captured a couple of police personnel of the Sunth State who were sent up the hill for reconnaissance.[8] On November 1, 1913, the adherents attempted an unsuccessful attack on the Partabgarh fort in Sunth State and looted the village of Brahm in Banswara state.[8] Apprehending danger, local rulers sought British assistance, and the Mangarh was besieged by local and British troops, including the Mewar Bhil Corps and troops from the states of Banswara, Dungarpur, Sunth and Baria.[8][13]

On November 17, 1913, the troops attacked Mangarh, an action in which "several Bhils died"[13] and Govindgiri and his lieutenant Dhirji Punja[7] were captured.[14]

Those arrested at Mangarh were tried on 2 February 1914 before a special tribunal consisting of one Major Gough and one Major Allison, I.C.S.[11] Govindgiri was sentenced to be hanged, Punja Pargi (a lieutenant of Govindgiri) sentenced to life imprisonment, and the rest to 3 years' imprisonment.[11][13] On appeal, Govindgiri's sentence was reduced to life imprisonment, Pargi's sentence was confirmed, and the sentences of the rest of the accused were reduced to six months' imprisonment.[11]