History of military nutrition

Military nutrition has evolved over time. In the past, armies that ventured beyond their supply lines lived off the land, by pillaging food from the people whose land the army occupied, or requisitioning it. Often more soldiers died of disease that was exacerbated by malnutrition than from combat.

"An army marches on its stomach", said Napoleon Bonaparte, in the oft-quoted phrase.[1]

The standard for military rations in the United States was set in 1775 during the Revolutionary War and included one pound of beef, one quarter pound of pork, or one pound of salt fish; one pound of bread or flour; three pints of peas or beans; one pint of milk; one half-pint of rice or one pint of cornmeal; and one quart of spruce beer or cider. When these items were not available, soldiers relied on jerky and hardtack, a type of biscuit made from flour and water.[2] During the Civil War, due to the progress made in the preservation of food, Union rations came to include coffee, tea, potatoes, and seasonings. During World War I, rations included a pound of hard bread and canned meat, a cube of condensed soup, coffee, and sugar.

During World War I, four types of rations existed: garrison rations, reserve rations, emergency rations, and trench rations. Garrison rations were perishable foods like meat and bread. Reserve rations were non-perishables, such as canned goods. In response to the need for food for the Grand Army that invaded Russia under Napoleon, a French government reward prompted Nicolas Appert to invent "canning", resulting in the first preserved food for armies (military rations), that came as food stuffed into wine bottles and then boiled to preserve it.[1] Emergency rations were compressed meats and cereal bars. Trench rations were kept in large steel cans designed to withstand chemical attacks. During the mid-1930s, the names for these rations were changed: garrison rations became A rations; reserve rations became B and C rations; emergency rations became D rations. C rations contained three cans of meat (M) units and Bread (B) units. M1 contained meat and beans, M2 contained meat and vegetable hash, and M3 contained meat and vegetable stew. B units contained bread, coffee, and sugar.

K rations were developed in the 1940s. These were portable rations, sealed for safe consumption, designed to give soldiers the energy they need without the baggage of the bulkier rations. One version of the K ration, the Logan bar, was made from chocolate and oat flour and was made by Hershey Chocolate Company. Starting in the 1980s these rations evolved to include two hot meals a day. T, or tray rations were developed for dining halls and were meant to be boiled and served to twelve to eighteen people. Individual rations were also developed called MRE or Meals Ready-To-Eat. These were complete 1300 calorie meals that include things like cake, peanut butter, hot sauce, and candy. These MREs came with a water activated heating pad to prepare the meals if desired. Since the 1980s, the variety of these meals has increased to include more of a variation of meals.[2]

United States military
Main article: History of military nutrition in the United States

Currently, the United States military several different types of food available. Some of these include:

  • A-Ration, a fresh refrigerator food that is normally prepared in dining halls or field kitchens. Examples of A- Ration include various kinds of meat and produce found locally.[3]
  • B-Ration, less perishable foods such as canned, prepackaged, or preserved foods.
  • MRE, or Meals Ready to Eat, which were first studied by the military in 1975, large-scale tested in 1978, and entered service in 1981. The 25th Infantry did a field study of the MRE in 1983, eating MRE three times a day for 34 days; troops reported that the rations were acceptable, but test results showed only 60% of the calories were consumed. In 1988 changes were made to the MRE based on the 1983 results, replacing nine of the twelve entree options and increasing entree size from 5 to 8 oz.[4]
  • First Strike Ration, a fast action meal which troops can eat while on the move; it is designed to be consumed during the first 72 hours of conflict. One example is the HOOAH! Bar, a dairy based energy bar enriched with calcium.

Effects on health

Nutrition contributes directly to human health, and health directly contributes to the effectiveness of military personnel. Lack of proper nutrition can decrease the effectiveness of vaccines and increase the possibility of disease, especially in high stress situations. Many nutrients have direct effects on the immune system. When the body is subjected to illnesses such as injuries or burns increased amounts of the amino acid Glutamine are required. Vitamins C and E are antioxidants and have been associated with increased immune response.[5] Nutrition plays an important role in the body's ability to repair itself. Throughout history there have been instances where disease caused by nutritional depletion caused more deaths than combat. During Lord Anson’s 1774 voyage around the world 636 of his 961 soldiers died while on his ships. The surgeon James Lind of the Royal Navy discovered that consuming citrus fruits prevented scurvy.[6] Historical accounts and nutrient analysis provide evidence that poor nutrition and inadequate amounts of vitamins A, C, and E may have caused the failure of the New Zealand army during the Battle of Gallipoli. These deficiencies account for numerous cases of scurvy and illnesses and could have been easily avoided by incorporating canned fruits and vegetables into soldier’s diets.[7] “ Inadequate nutrition can result in poor physical and cognitive performance (e.g. inability to carry out physical tasks, poor concentration and decreased vigilance) [21,22]. The long-term effects of both macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances include increased risk of vitamin and mineral deficiencies (potentially predisposing some individuals to an increased risk of stress fractures and rickets), obesity, hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis and kidney failure”.[6]

Nutritional evaluation of Meals Ready to Eat (MRE)

In 1963, the Department of Defense began creating what is now known as “Meal, Ready to Eat”, commonly abbreviated as MRE. Modern food preparation combined with new packaging technology led to the ability to ration out food in a lighter and more efficient way, rather than having to carry around canned goods. Ongoing development has led to around 24 entrees and more than 150 additional food and beverage options for soldiers to choose from. Recently, MREs have been studied more extensively, and are now being developed using the Dietary Reference Intake. Created by the Institute of Medicine, it was indicated that military members typically burn around 4,200 calories a day, but tend to only consume around 2,400 calories during combat. To combat this and provide foods with better nutritional value, the military has experimented with new ration ideas, such as the First Strike Ration and the HOOAH! Bar, which are typically lighter than MRE and require less preparation, such as having to heat up foods.

Each MRE meal contains approximately 1,200 calories. They are prepared to be eaten within a twenty-one day period. Packaging requirements are strict in order to maintain health codes. For example, MREs are created to withstand parachute drops from 1,250 feet high. The packaging itself is made to survive a life shelf of three and a half years at 81 degrees Fahrenheit, nine months at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and can even stay safe through short durations of −60 degrees Fahrenheit.

Not only are the MRE options ever-developing to best suit the needs of service members, the packaging itself is improving. Zein is being studied as a possibility to replace the current foil packages. Foil has a list of negativity; it can be punctured more easily, can conduct heat, and is reflective, which could give away a soldier's position while on the battlefield.

Psychological effects

The subject of how nutrition in the military affects service members psychologically is an ongoing research process. It is currently a small field, as few studies have been conducted. However, much research has been done on how food, or lack thereof, can affect the mental stability of an individual. This information can thus be carried over to our soldiers and intensified, to better their health. A review by the American Dietetic Association indicated that restricting the intake of food has many underlying issues. Lack of proper nutrition can increase emotional responsiveness and dysphoria, and distractibility.[8] This can be an obvious issue for soldiers, especially those on the front line. Taking this into account and finding ways to better the dietary plans of military members will not only better their physical abilities, but help keep their minds stronger.

Religious diets

Muslim soldiers must observe Ramadan, a four-week fasting period where the participants can only eat after sundown. This can cause problems for military personnel who are in training or in battle, depleting their body of nutrients for long periods of time while they are still required to do continuous physical and mental labor at a high level of ability.[9] However, a Hellenic Army Academy study found that Ramadan fasting does not affect overall military fitness performance, although fasting cadets were less able to handle repeated maximal exercise, possibly due to inadequate recovery between tests.[9]

Diet quality

United States military

Throughout US military history, diet quality has not been the main issue; the lack of food consumption has. The Committee on Military Nutrition Research attempted to identify factors that lead to low food intake by troops in field settings, investigating whether or not—and if so, when—the energy deficit affects soldiers’ performance, and what specific factors are involved, allowing the military to implement operational strategies to mitigate the problem.[10]

Australian military

A balanced diet informed by sound nutrition knowledge is key for operational readiness and the health of military personnel. Unfortunately, research suggests that military personnel have inadequate dietary intakes. A study assessed general nutrition knowledge, diet quality and their association in Australian military personnel.[11] Two specific questions on eating patterns were also included. The first examined how often during an average week (including weekends) participants skipped breakfast, lunch and/or dinner. Response options included ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘sometimes’ or ‘never’. The second examined on average how many times per week participants ate dinner away from home – for example, from a restaurant, takeaway or frontline (military canteen). Participants were required to provide a numerical value of occasions per week.[11] This study found that military personnel had poor quality diets even with the knowledge they would expect to have from having to take care of their bodies in other to be able to reach their fitness standards.[11]

New Zealand military

A study done testing the poor food quality giving to New Zealand soldiers in Gallipoli in 1915. To further understand this problem, the study analysed the foods in the military rations for 1915 using food composition data on the closest equivalents for modern foods. The nutrient analysis suggested that the military rations were below modern requirements for vitamins A, C and E; potassium; selenium; and dietary fiber. If military planners had used modest amounts of the canned vegetables and fruit available in 1915, this would probably have eliminated four of these six deficits.[7] In summary, there is now both historical and analytic evidence that the military rations provided to these soldiers were nutritionally inadequate. These deficits are likely to have caused cases of scurvy and may have contributed to the high rates of other illnesses experienced at Gallipoli. Such problems could have been readily prevented by providing rations that included some canned fruit or vegetables.[7]

Canadian military

Canada determined that poor nutrition of their military personnel may be affecting their long-term health and combat readiness.[12] Due to their findings, the military has designed and required a nutrition course for all new recruits. They have also updated their National Standardized Cycle menu and shelf stable rations to encourage healthier eating habits.[12]

British military

During the First World War, the rations provided to the British Forces were often inedible and did not resemble real food. The soldiers mentioning food in many of their letters home shows some psychological distress that they may have been experiencing due to the nature of their rations.[13] They also were high in calories yet low in the essential nutrients needed to thrive. In the book the author reveals parts of soldiers diaries where they admit to stealing food from French farms and orchards. Edible food was used as a motivating source for the Soldiers when receiving care packages from loved ones.[13]

See also

References
  1. Daily Mail, "Indian soldiers forced to eat sub-standard food" Archived 2010-11-26 at the Wayback Machine, Christina Palmer
  2. Mariani, John. "Ration". Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink.
  3. Ramsey, Casside (2013). "Evaluating the Nutrition Intake of U.S. Military Service Members in Garrison". Military Medicine. 178 (12): 1285–1290. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00178. PMID 24306009.
  4. "Grub, Chow, Mystery Meat – Combat Food 2.0". Cable News Network.
  5. "Military Strategies for Sustainment of Nutrition and Immune Function in the Field". National Academies Press.
  6. Hill, Neil (2011). "Military Nutrition: Maintaining Health and Rebuilding Injured Tissue". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1562): 231–240. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0213. PMC 3013424. PMID 21149358.
  7. Wilson, Nick (2013). "A Nutritional Analysis of New Zealand Military Food Rations at Gallipoli in 1915: Likely Contribution to Scurvy and Other Nutrient Deficiency Disorders". The New Zealand Medical Journal. 126 (1373): 12–29. PMID 23797073.
  8. Polivy, Janet (1996). "Psychological Consequences of Food Restriction". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 96 (6): 589–592. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(96)00161-7. PMID 8655907.
  9. Havenetidis, K. "The Effects of Ramadan Fasting on Physical Field-Expedient Measures in Army Cadets" (PDF).
  10. Marriott, Bernadette (1995). Not Eating Enough: Overcoming Underconsumptions of Military Operational Rations. Committee on Military Nutrition Research.
  11. Kullen, Farrugia (2016). "Relationship Between General Nutrition Knowledge and Diet Quality in Australian Military Personnel". British Journal of Nutrition. 115 (8): 1489–1497. doi:10.1017/S0007114516000532. PMID 26931550.
  12. Troupe, H. (2017). Development of a Nutrition Strategy for the Canadian Armed Forces to Enhance Operational Effectiveness, Human Performance, and Long Term Health Based on Scientific Evidence. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice & Research. p. 161.
  13. Duffett, Rachel (December 2011). "Beyond the Ration: Sharing and Scrounging on the Western Front". Twentieth Century British History. 22 (4): 453–473. doi:10.1093/tcbh/hwr013. PMID 22400426.
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