Lancaster's Normandy chevauchée of 1356

Edward III of England

Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France.[1] Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350) and Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council in Paris agreed that the lands held by Edward III in France should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.[2]

In 1346 King Edward III of England led an army across northern France, defeating the French at the Battle of Crécy and laying siege to the port of Calais. With French finances and morale at a low ebb after Crécy, King Philip VI failed to relieve the town and it surrendered on 3 August 1347.[3][4] Following further inconclusive military manoeuvres by each side, and given that both sides were financially exhausted, emissaries despatched by Pope Clement VI found willing listeners. By 28 September the Truce of Calais, intended to bring a temporary halt to the fighting, had been agreed.[5] This strongly favoured the English, confirming them in possession of all of their territorial conquests.[5] It was to run for nine months to 7 July 1348, but was extended repeatedly over the years until it was formally set aside in 1355.[6] The truce did not stop ongoing naval clashes between the two countries, nor small-scale fighting in Gascony and Brittany, nor occasional fighting on a larger scale.[7][8]

A treaty ending the war was negotiated at Guînes and signed on 6 April 1354. However, the French king, now John II, decided not to ratify it and it did not take effect. The latest extension to the truce was due to expire on 24 June. It was clear that from then both sides would be committed to full-scale war.[9][10] In April 1355 Edward III and his council, with the treasury in an unusually favourable financial position, decided to launch offensives that year in both northern France and Gascony.[11][12] John II of France (r. 1350–1364) attempted to strongly garrison his northern towns and fortifications against the expected descent by Edward III, at the same time assembling a field army; he was unable to, largely due to lack of money.[13]

A contemporary image of John II

The English expedition to Normandy was intended to be carried out with the cooperation of the French magnate Charles II of Navarre,[14][15] but Charles reneged on the agreement.[16][17] Instead a chevauchée, a large-scale mounted raid, was attempted from the English enclave of Calais in November.[15][16] However, the French King had stripped the area of fodder, food and potential booty, causing the English to return to Calais within ten days.[16][18] They had achieved nothing, but did focus French attention on the north.[19][20]

Edward III's eldest son, Edward of Woodstock, later commonly known as the Black Prince, was given the Gascon command[21][22] and arrived in Bordeaux, the capital of English-held Gascony, on the 20th accompanied by 2,200 English soldiers.[23][24] An Anglo-Gascon force of between 5,000 and 6,000 men marched from Bordeaux 300 miles (480 km) to Narbonne and back to Gascony, devastating a wide swathe of French territory and sacking many French towns on the way.[25][26] While no territory was captured, enormous economic damage was done to France;[27] the modern historian Clifford Rogers concluded that "the importance of the economic attrition of the chevauchée can hardly be exaggerated."[28] The English component resumed the offensive after Christmas to great effect, and more than 50 French-held towns or fortifications in south-west France were captured during the following four months.[29] Several local lords went over to the English, bringing a further 30 fortified places with them.[30]

Money and enthusiasm for the war were running out in France. The modern historian Jonathan Sumption describes the French national administration as "fall[ing] apart in jealous acrimony and recrimination".[31] Much of the north of France was openly defying John and a contemporary chronicler recorded that "the King of France was severely hated in his own realm". Arras rebelled and killed loyalists. The major nobles of Normandy refused to pay taxes. On 5 April 1356 they were dining at the table of John's eldest son when John arrived, accompanied by armed men, and arrested ten of the most outspoken; four were summarily executed.[32] The Norman nobles who had not been arrested sent to Navarre for reinforcements[33] and turned to Edward for assistance. One of those imprisoned was the notoriously treacherous Charles II, king of Navarre and one of the largest landholders in Normandy.[32][note 1]

Normandy

The French laid siege to several of Navarre's fortifications in Normandy, while his partisan's negotiated an alliance with Edward. The English had been preparing an expedition to Brittany under Henry, Earl of Lancaster as part of the War of the Breton Succession; Edward diverted this to Normandy to support the French rebels. This expeditionary force landed on 18 June 1356 on the beaches near St. Vaast la Hogue, the same beaches on which the English had landed ten years earlier at the start of the Crécy campaign. Lancaster had with him 500 men-at-arms and 800 longbowmen. They were reinforced by 200 Normans under Philip of Navarre, brother of Charles II. The English commander Robert Knolles joined Lancaster in Montebourg with a further 800 men detached from English garrisons in Brittany. The historian Clifford Rogers suggests that these 2,300 men were reinforced by up to 1,700 men from Navarrese-held fortifications over the following month.[36] The opposing French were much stronger, with perhaps ten times the number of men.[37]

Lancaster's main objective was to relieve the besieged Navarrese strongholds of Pont-Audemer, Breteuil, and Evreux; but by the time he landed only the first two places were still holding out. There was a delay of several days,[38] as horses transported in the ships of the day needed time to recover, otherwise they would break down.[39] By the 23rd the English had pushed 25 miles (40 km) south to Carentan. So far they had been in relatively friendly territory, but on the 24th the set off into French-controlled Normandy. Their journey took the form of a typical chevauchée of the time. All participants were mounted and moved relatively rapidly for armies of the period. Villages were looted and razed, as were towns and fortifications weak enough to be easily captured; stronger places were ignored. Parties spread out from the main line of travel, so that a broad swathe of France was pillaged and devastated.[40] Lancaster was prepared for a set-piece battle if necessary, but was not actively seeking one.[38]

On 24 June the English force headed south, crossed the Vire at Torigni-sur-Vire, and halted there for the 25th. On the 26th turned east, burning their way through western Normandy and crossing the strongly fortified bridge over the Dives after the French garrison abandoned it. Lancaster's small army arrived at Pont-Audemer four days after leaving Torigni-sur-Vire, which was some 84 miles (135 km) distant in a straight line. The town was close to falling, as the French had nearly succeeded in driving mines under its walls, but they fled on hearing of Lancaster's approach. The English spent two days provisioning the town and filling in the French excavations. Detaching 100 men to reinforce the garrison, Lancaster marched south on 2 July. On the 4th he reached Conches-en-Ouche, stormed it and razed it. The next day Breteuil was reached, its besiegers having have retired in good order, and it was resupplied to stand a lengthy siege.[41][42]

Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Lancaster

Lancaster had failed to relieve Evreux, but brought back considerable booty making the short campaign a profitable venture for the participants. The chevauchée also caused King John II of France to undertake a siege of Breteuil, instead of focusing on the Black Prince in Gascony.