Parshall flume

• Parshall flumes require a drop in elevation through the flume. To accommodate the drop in an existing channel either the flume must be raised above the channel floor (raising the upstream water level) or the downstream channel must be modified.
• As with weirs, flumes can also have an effect on local fauna. Some species or certain life stages of the same species may be blocked by flumes due to relatively slow swim speeds or behavioral characteristics.
• In earthen channels, upstream bypass and downstream scour may occur.
• Parshall flumes below 3-inches in size should not be used on unscreened sanitary flows.

• ASTM D1941 – 91(2013) Standard Test Method for Open Channel Flow Measurement of Water with the Parshall Flume
• ISO 9826:1992 Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open Channels – Parshall and SANIIRI Flumes

A venturi flume is similar to the Parshall flume, without the contoured base, but the cross section is usually rectangular, the inlet shorter, and there is a general taper on the outlet similar to the venturi meter.[9] Because of their size, it is usual for these meters to be open to their surroundings just like a river or stream and therefore this type of measurement is referred to as open-channel flow measurement. Parshall flumes are much more efficient than standard flumes and generate a standard wave to effect a measurement.

A good example can be found via google earth: 50°58'41.34"N, 5°51'36.81"E, eye altitude 200 m. This is in the Geleenbeek, near Geleen in the Netherlands.

Beginning in 1915, Dr. Ralph Parshall of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service altered the subcritical Venturi flume to include a drop in elevation through the throat of the flume. This created a transition from subcritical flow conditions to supercritical flow conditions through the throat of the flume.

Modifications to the Venturi flume that Parshall made include:[10]

• Decreasing the angle of convergence of the inlet walls
• Lengthening the throat
• Decreasing the angle of divergence of the outlet wall
• Introducing a drop through the throat of the flume

In 1930, the improved flume was named the Parshall Measuring Flume by the Irrigation Committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) in recognition of Parshall's accomplishments. Parshall was additionally honored as a Life Member of the ASCE.[11]

Diagram of a Parshall flume showing free flow and submerged flow operation (with optional inlet / outlet wing walls and stilling wells)

The Parshall Flume acts essentially as a constriction, a downward step, and then an expansion: the upstream section is uniformly converging and flat, the throat is a short parallel section that slopes downward, and the downstream section is uniformly diverging and slopes upward to an ending elevation that is less than the upstream starting elevation. The width of the throat determines the flume size; 22 standardized sizes have been developed, ranging from 1 in to 50 ft (0.005 ft³/s to 3,280 ft³/s).

There are two conditions of flow that can occur in a Parshall flume: free flow and submerged flow. When free flow conditions exist, the user only needs to collect one head measurement (Ha, the primary point of measurement) to determine the discharge. For submerged flow a secondary head measurement (Hb) is required to determine the flume is submerged and the degree of submergence.

The primary point of measurement (Ha) is located in the inlet of the flume, two-thirds of the length of the converging section from the flume crest. The secondary point of measurement (Hb) is located in the throat of the flume.

A hydraulic jump occurs downstream of the flume for free flow conditions. As the flume becomes submerged, the hydraulic jump diminishes and ultimately disappears as the downstream conditions increasingly restrict the flow out of the flume.

The free-flow discharge can be summarized as

${\displaystyle Q=CH_{a}^{n}}$

where

• Q is flow rate
• C is the free-flow coefficient for the flume
• H_a is the head at the primary point of measurement
• n varies with flume size (e.g. 1.55 for a 1-inch flume)

A Parshall Flume relies on the conservation of energy principle. The sum of the kinetic and potential energy at a given point must be equal to the energy at any other point along the stream. The total energy or head must be equal.

Using the equations, we will solve for Q.

${\displaystyle E=y+{\frac {q^{2}}{2gy^{2}}}}$

${\displaystyle q={\frac {Q}{b}}}$

${\displaystyle E_{1}+\Delta z=E_{2}+\Delta z=E_{3}}$

Where E₁ is the energy at H_a, E₂ at the flume crest, and E₃ at H_b respectively.

Since E₂ is located at the flume crest where there is a steep drop, critical flow conditions occur.

${\displaystyle E_{c}={\frac {3}{2}}\left({\frac {q^{2}}{g}}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}={\frac {3}{2}}y_{c}}$

Rearranging and substituting in the above equations, we get

${\displaystyle y_{1}+{\frac {\left({\frac {Q}{b_{1}}}\right)^{2}}{2gy_{1}^{2}}}={\frac {3}{2}}y_{c}}$

Or

${\displaystyle {\frac {2}{3}}\left(y_{1}+{\frac {\left({\frac {Q}{b_{1}}}\right)^{2}}{2gy_{1}^{2}}}\right)=y_{c}}$

Since we know that Q = v⋅y⋅b and v = √gy_c at critical depth, we can use these relationships to solve for the discharge.

${\displaystyle Q=b_{2}{\sqrt {g}}\left({\frac {2}{3}}\left(y_{1}+{\frac {\left({\frac {Q}{b_{1}}}\right)^{2}}{2gy_{1}^{2}}}\right)\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}}$

Broken further down, we realize that

${\displaystyle {\frac {\left({\frac {Q}{b_{1}}}\right)^{2}}{2gy_{1}^{2}}}={\frac {v^{2}}{2g}}}$

And

${\displaystyle E_{1}=y_{1}+{\frac {v^{2}}{2g}}}$

Since this is measured upstream, where flow is sub-critical, it can be stated that y₁ ≫ v²/2g

Therefore, for a rough approximation we can say

${\displaystyle Q\approx b_{2}{\sqrt {g}}\left({\frac {2}{3}}y_{1}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}}$

This equation simplifies to:

• In ft³/s: ${\displaystyle Q\approx 3.088(b_{2})y^{1.5}}$
• In m³/s: ${\displaystyle Q\approx 1.704(b_{2})y^{1.5}}$

These final two equations are very similar to the Q = CH_aⁿ equations that are used for Parshall flumes. In fact when looking at the flume tables, n has a value equal to or slightly greater than 1.5, while the value of C is larger than (3.088 b₂) but still in a rough estimation. The derived equations above will always underestimate actual flow since both the derived C and n values are lower than their respective chart values.

For the Parshall flume equation used to calculate the flow rate, both empirical values C and n are known constants (with various values for each Parshall flume size) leaving Ha (depth upstream) as the only variable needing to be measured. Likewise, in the energy conservation equation, y₁ (or the depth of flow) is needed.

Free flow: When there is no “back water” to restrict flow through a flume. Only the upstream depth needs to be measured to calculate the flow rate. A free flow also induces a hydraulic jump downstream of the flume.

Submerged flow: When the water surface downstream of the flume is high enough to restrict flow through a flume, submerged flume conditions exist. A backwater buildup effect occurs in a submerged flume. For a flow calculation a depth measurement both upstream and downstream is needed.

Although commonly thought of as occurring at higher flow rates, submerged flow can exist at any flow level as it is a function of downstream conditions. In natural stream applications, submerged flow is frequently the result of vegetative growth on the downstream channel banks, sedimentation, or subsidence of the flume.

Illustrated above is a unitless E – Y diagram and how Energy and depth of flow changes throughout a Parshall Flume. The two blue lines represent the q values, q₁ for the flow before the constriction, and q₂ representing the value at the constriction (q = Q/b = ft²/s, or flow over width in a rectangular channel). When a constriction (decrease in width) happens Between E₁ and E₂, the q value changed (and becomes the new critical depth), while the energy remains the same. Then the flume experiences a downward step which results in a gain in energy. This gain in energy is equal to the size of the step (or Δz). From this the principles of conservation of energy are used to develop a set of calculations to predict the flow rate.

For free flow, the equation to determine the flow rate is simply Q = CH_aⁿ where:

• Q is flow rate (ft³/s)
• C is the free-flow coefficient for the flume (see Table 1 below)
• H_a is the head at the primary point of measurement (ft)

(See Figure 1 above)

• n varies with flume size (see Table 1 below)

Parshall flume discharge table for free flow conditions:[12]

For submerged flow, a depth of flow needs to be taken upstream (H_a) and downstream (H_b). See locations of H_a and H_b in Figure 1.[12]

If H_b/H_a is greater or equal to S_t then it is a submerged flow. If there is submerged flow, adjustments need to be made in order for the Parshall Flume to work properly.

The discharge (Q) can be found using the following equations and table:

• Q_net = Q_{free flow} – Q_correction
• Q_correction = M (0.000132 H_a^2.123 e^{9.284 St)}

where:

• S, H_b/H_a
• M, multiplying factor

(Note: All various Q values are in ft³/s, Ha is in feet, and M varies in units)

Parshall Flume Free Flow Example Problem:

Using the Parshall flume free flow equation, determine the discharge of a 72-inch flume with a depth, Ha of 3 feet.

From Table 1: Throat width = 72 in = 6 ft, C = 24, and n = 1.59.

Q = 24 Ha^1.59 for a 72-inch Parshall flume

So, if there is a depth of 3 feet, the flow rate is ≈ 140 ft³/s

Approximate the discharge using the derived discharge equation shown above (Equation 5). This equation was derived using the principles of specific energy and is only to serve as an estimate for the actual discharge of the Parshall flume. Again, equations 5 and 6 will always underestimate the actual flow since both the derived C and n values are lower than their respective empirically derived chart values.

Q = (6 ft) × (3.088) × (3 ft) × 1.5 = 96 ft³/s

Parshall flume submerged flow example problem:

Using the Parshall flume flow equations and Tables 1-3, determine the flow type (free flow or submerged flow) and discharge for a 36-inch flume with an upstream depth, Ha of 1.5 ft and a downstream depth, H_b of 1.4 ft. For reference of locations H_a and H_b, refer to Figure 1.

From Table 2, the Parshall Flume submergence transition (St) for a 36-inch = 3 feet flume is 0.7. Since H_b/H_a is greater than or equal to 0.7, it is a submerged flow.

Q_net = Q_{free flow} – Q_correction

Q = CH_aⁿ

From Table 1: Throat width = 36 in = 3 ft, C = 12, and n = 1.57.

Q_{free flow} = 12 × (1.5 ft) × 1.57 = 22.68 ft³/s

Q_correction = M × 0.000132 × Ha × 2.123×10^9.284 × S

Where S = H_b/H_a = 1.4 ft/1.5 ft = 0.93

From Table 3, M = 2.4 for a flume size of 3 ft

Q_correction = 2.4 × (0.000132) × (1.5 ft) × (2.123×10^9.284) × (0.93) = 4.21 ft³/s

Q_net = 22.68 ft³/s – 4.21 ft³/s = 18.5 ft³/s

A wide variety of materials are used to make Parshall flumes, including:[13]

• Fiberglass[14] (wastewater applications due to its corrosion resistance)
• Stainless steel[15] (applications involving high temperatures / corrosive flow streams)
• Galvanized steel[16] (water rights / irrigation)
• Concrete (large Parshall throat widths 144 in [3.66 m] and above)
• Aluminum[17] (portable applications)
• Wood (temporary flow measurement)
• Plastic (PVC or polycarbonate / Lexan) (teaching/laboratory investigation)

Smaller Parshall flumes tend to be fabricated from fiberglass and galvanized steel (depending upon the application), while larger Parshall flumes tend to fabricated from fiberglass (sizes up to 144 in) or concrete (160–600 in).[18]

By the 1960s, several different companies began to commercially offer Parshall flumes. These manufacturers have typically produce flumes from one type of material only (typically glass-reinforce plastic or steel), although currently a few, offer Parshall flumes in a variety of materials.

Dr. Parshall's initial focus was for the use of his namesake flume to measure flows in irrigation channels and other surface waters.

Over time, however, the Parshall flume has proven to be applicable to a wide variety of open channel flows including:

• Irrigation channels and ditches
• Furrows
• Surface waters (swales, creeks, streams, and rivers)
• Elevated, above grade piped flows
• Below grade piped flows (concrete vaults / manholes incorporated into Packaged Metering Manholes)

• Parshall flumes require a drop in elevation through the flume. To accommodate the drop in an existing channel either the flume must be raised above the channel floor (raising the upstream water level) or the downstream channel must be modified.
• As with weirs, flumes can also have an effect on local fauna. Some species or certain life stages of the same species may be blocked by flumes due to relatively slow swim speeds or behavioral characteristics.
• In earthen channels, upstream bypass and downstream scour may occur. Armoring of the upstream and downstream channels is recommended.
• Parshall flumes below 3 inches in size should not be used on unscreened sanitary flows, due to the likelihood of clogging.[19]
• The Parshall flume is an empirical device. Interpolation between sizes is not an accurate method of developing intermediate size Parshall flumes as the flumes are not scale models of each other.[20][21][22] The 30-inch [76.2 cm] and 42-inch [106.7 cm] sizes are examples of intermediate sizes of Parshall flumes that have crept into the marketplace without the backing of published research into their sizing and flow rates.[23]

Two variations of the Parshall flume have been developed over time: the Montana flume and the Short Section (USGS / Portable) Parshall flume.[24]

• Pictures of fiberglass, galvanized and stainless steel Parshall flumes

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Parshall flumes.

• ASTM D1941 – 91(2013) Standard Test Method for Open Channel Flow Measurement of Water with the Parshall Flume
• ISO 9826:1992 Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open Channels – Parshall and SANIIRI Flumes
• JIS B7553-1993 Parshall Flume Type Flowmeters
• Bos, Marinus (1989). Discharge Measurement Structures. Third edition revised. Publication 20. Oxford, United Kingdom: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement. ISBN 978-9070754150.
• Grant, Doug; Dawson, Brian (2001). ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook (5th ed.). ISBN 978-0962275722.