Physicians in Canada

Hospitals were initially places which cared for the poor as those with higher socioeconomic status were cared for at home. In Quebec during the 18th century, a series of charitable institutions, many set up by Catholic religious orders, provided such care.[2]

The first medical schools were established in Lower Canada in the 1820s. These included the Montreal Medical Institution, which is the McGill University Faculty of Medicine today. In the mid-1870s, Sir William Osler changed the face of medical school instruction with the introduction of the hands-on approach. The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Upper Canada was established in 1839, and in 1869, it was permanently incorporated. In 1834, William Kelly, a surgeon with the Royal Navy, introduced the idea of preventing the spread of disease via sanitation measures following epidemics of cholera. In 1892, Dr. William Osler wrote the landmark text The Principles and Practice of Medicine, which dominated medical instruction in the West for the following half century. Around this time, a movement began that called for the improved healthcare for the poor, focusing mainly on sanitation and hygiene. This period saw important advances including the provision of safe drinking water to most of the population, public baths and beaches, and municipal garbage services to remove waste from the city. During this period, medical care was severely lacking for the poor and minorities such as First Nations.[3]

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through thirteen provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[5] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984.[6] The government ensures the quality of care through federal standards. The government does not participate in day-to-day care or collect any information about an individual's health, which remains confidential as per the doctor-patient relationship.[7] Canada's provincially based Medicare systems are cost-effective because of their administrative simplicity. In each province, each doctor handles the insurance claim against the provincial insurer. There is no need for the person who accesses healthcare to be involved in billing and reclaim. Private health expenditure accounts for about 30% of health care financing.[8] The Canada Health Act does not cover prescription drugs, home care or long-term care, or dental care, which implies that most Canadians rely on private insurance from their employers or the government to pay for the costs associated with these services.[7] Provinces provide partial coverage for children, those living in poverty, and seniors.[7] Programs vary by province.

Canada has a ratio of practising physicians to population that is below the OECD average.[9]

In 2006, it was reported that family physicians in Canada earned an average of $202,000 a year.[10] Alberta had the highest average salary of around $230,000, while Quebec had the lowest average annual salary at $165,000, arguably creating inter-provincial competition for doctors and contributing to local shortages at the time.[10] In 2018, to draw attention to the work of nurses and the declining level of service provided to patients, more than 700 physicians, residents, and medical students in Quebec signed an online petition asking for their pay raises to be canceled.[11]

In 1991, the Ontario Medical Association agreed to become a province-wide closed shop, making the OMA union a monopoly. Critics argue that this measure has restricted the supply of doctors to guarantee its members' incomes.[12] In 2008, the Ontario Medical Association and the Ontario government agreed to a four-year contract with a 12.25% doctors' pay raise, which was expected to cost Ontarians an extra $1 billion. Ontario's then-premier Dalton McGuinty said, "One of the things that we've got to do, of course, is ensure that we're competitive ... to attract and keep doctors here in Ontario...".[13]

In December 2008, the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada reported a critical shortage of obstetricians and gynecologists. The report stated that 1,370 obstetricians were practising in Canada and that number is expected to fall by at least one-third within five years. The society is asking the government to increase the number of residency positions obstetrics and gynecology by 30 percent a year for three years and also recommended rotating placements of doctors into smaller communities to encourage them to take up residence there.[14]

Each province regulates its medical profession through a self-governing regulatory body, which is responsible for licensing physicians, setting practice standards, and investigating and disciplining its members.

The national doctors association is called the Canadian Medical Association;[15] it describes its mission as "To serve and unite the physicians of Canada and be the national advocate, in partnership with the people of Canada, for the highest standards of health and health care."[16] Because healthcare is deemed to be under provincial/territorial jurisdiction, negotiations on behalf of physicians are conducted by provincial associations such as the Ontario Medical Association. The views of Canadian doctors have been mixed, particularly in their support for allowing parallel private financing. The history of Canadian physicians in the development of Medicare has been described by David Naylor.[17] Since the passage of the 1984 Canada Health Act, the CMA itself has been a strong advocate of maintaining a strong publicly funded system, including lobbying the federal government to increase funding, and being a founding member of (and active participant in) the Health Action Lobby (HEAL).[18]

However, internal disputes may occur. In particular, some provincial medical associations have argued for permitting a larger private role. To some extent, this has been a reaction to strong cost control; CIHI estimates that 99% of physician expenditures in Canada come from public sector sources, and physicians—particularly those providing elective procedures who have been squeezed for operating room time—have accordingly looked for alternative revenue sources. One indication came in August 2007 when the CMA elected as president Dr. Brian Day of British Columbia, who owns the largest private hospital in Canada and vocally supports increasing private healthcare in Canada. The CMA presidency rotates among the provinces, with the provincial association electing a candidate who is customarily ratified by the CMA general meeting. Day's selection was sufficiently controversial that he was challenged—albeit unsuccessfully—by another physician member.[19]

Medical students at Halifax Medical College in Nova Scotia in 1890.

There are multiple components to the education of a physician or surgeon in Canada, and the process varies slightly between provinces.

Medical school

Main article: Medical school in Canada

The McIntyre Medical Sciences Building, central hub of the McGill University Faculty of Medicine

Generally, in order to be admitted into a Canadian medical school, one must have completed at least an undergraduate degree. However, not all medical schools in Canada require a bachelor's degree for entry.[20] For example, Quebec's medical schools accept applicants after a two-year CEGEP diploma, which is the equivalent of other provinces' grade 12 plus the first year of university. Most faculties of medicine in Western Canada require at least 2 years, and most faculties in Ontario require at least 3 years of university study before application can be made to medical school. The University of Manitoba requires applicants to complete a prior degree before admission. The Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada (AFMC) publishes a detailed guide[21] to admission requirements of Canadian faculties of medicine on a yearly basis.

Admission offers are made by individual medical schools, generally on the basis of a personal statement, autobiographical sketch, undergraduate record (GPA), scores on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT),[22] and interviews. Medical schools in Quebec (Francophones and Anglophone alike), the University of Ottawa (a bilingual school), and the Northern Ontario School of Medicine (a school which promotes francophone culture), do not require the MCAT, as the MCAT has no French equivalent. Some schools, such as the University of Toronto and Queen's University, use the MCAT score as a cut-off, where sub-standard scores compromise eligibility.[23][24] Other schools, such as the University of Western Ontario, give increasing preference to higher performance.[25] McMaster University strictly utilizes the Critical Analysis and Reasoning section of the MCAT to determine interview eligibility and admission rank.[26]

There are currently seventeen medical schools in Canada. They offer a three- to five-year Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery (M.D., C.M.) degree. The only Canadian medical school to offer the M.D., C.M. degree is McGill University's Faculty of Medicine. Although presently most students enter medicine having previously earned another degree, the M.D. is technically considered an undergraduate degree in Canada.

The annual success rate for Canadian citizens applying for admission to Canadian medical schools is normally below 10%.[27] Just over 2,500 positions were available in first-year classes in 2006-2007 across all seventeen Canadian faculties of medicine. The average cost of tuition in 2006-2007 was $12,728 for medical schools outside of Quebec; in Quebec (for Quebecers only), average tuition was $2,943. The level of debt among Canadian medical students upon graduation has received attention in the medical media.[28][29]

Medical school in Canada is generally a four-year program at most universities. Notable exceptions include McMaster University and the University of Calgary, where programs run for three years, without interruption for the summer. McGill University and Université de Montréal in the province of Quebec both offer a five-year program that includes a medical preparatory year to entering CEGEP graduates. While Université Laval in Quebec City offers a four- to five-year program to all entering students (both CEGEP graduates and university-level students), Université de Sherbrooke offers a formal four-year M.D. program to all admitted students.

The first half of the medical curriculum is dedicated mostly to teaching the fundamentals of, or basic subjects relevant to, medicine, such as anatomy, histology, physiology, pharmacology, genetics, microbiology, medical ethics, health law, and epidemiology, among many others. This instruction can be organized by discipline or by organ system. Teaching methods can include traditional lectures, problem-based learning, laboratory sessions, simulated patient sessions, and limited clinical experiences. The remainder of medical school is spent in clerkship. Clinical clerks participate in the day-to-day management of patients. They are supervised and taught during this clinical experience by residents and fully licensed staff physicians. Typical rotations include internal medicine, family medicine, psychiatry, surgery, emergency medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, and pediatrics. Elective rotations are often available for students to explore specialties of interest for upcoming residency training.

Some medical schools offer joint degree programs in which a limited number of interested medical students may simultaneously enroll in Master of Science (M.Sc.) or Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) programs in related fields. Often this research training is undertaken during elective time and between the basic science and clinical clerkship halves of the curriculum. For example, while Université de Sherbrooke offers a M.D./M.Sc. program, McGill University offers a M.D./Ph.D. for medical students holding an undergraduate degree in a relevant field. Some universities also offer joint programs in business administration, including McGill University with its joint program leading to the degrees of Doctor of Medicine and Master of Business Administration (M.D./MBA).

Canadian physicians must undergo an extensive process of licensing in order to practice independently. Upon graduating from medical school, they must pass the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination, Part 1. Following residency training, they pass Part 2 of the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination, in addition to their specialty written examinations and objective structured clinical examinations with the CFPC or RCPSC and any supplementary examinations required by provincial or territorial regulatory authorities.

Graduating family physicians will need to pass their CPFC examinations, while specialist physicians or surgeons will need to pass their RCPSC examinations.

The Canadian Medical Protective Association (CMPA) is a non-profit association committed to provide advice and assistance when medical-legal issues arise in a physician's practice. They provide legal defense, liability protection, and risk-management education for physicians in Canada They also provide monetary compensation to patients and their families proven to have been harmed by negligent clinical care.

Continuing professional development, previously known as continuing medical education, is an important ethical and regulatory requirement of every physician's and surgeon's duty to the care of their patients.

Physician assistants were introduced to Canada originally in the Canadian Armed Forces in the 1960s. Physician assistants as a profession, although distinct from physicians, are one of the most interrelated professions to medicine. Both physicians and physician assistants practice medicine in a variety of areas and specialities. The distinction which separates the two professions, are that physician assistants study medicine at a medical school for a shorter period of time than their physician counterparts. Additionally, physicians undertake residency training post their graduation from a medical school. There are some physician assistants post graduation which can complete residency trainings in the United States. There is discussion on physician assistants having access to future residency programs specific to their practice in Canada. Physician assistants in Canada must also practice in collaboration with physicians at this current time. Physician Assistants in the United States are growingly becoming independent providers with a focus on optimal team practice. [44] There are similar discussions of optimal team practice occurring in Canada currently. Physician assistants primarily practice in the Canadian public health systems in the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The physician assistant model of care is outlined by CanMEDS-PA, published by The Canadian Association of Physician Assistants in support of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) and the College of Family Physicians of Canada (CFPC). [45] Physician assistants should not be confused with nurse practitioners in Canada. Nurse practitioners are trained and practice in advanced nursing, in their defined scope of practice, whereas physician assistants are trained and practice in medicine as generalists.

• Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism
• Biochemistry and Cell Biology
• Canadian Family Physician
• Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
• Canadian Journal of Rural Medicine
• Canadian Journal of Surgery
• Canadian Medical Association Journal
• Canadian Medical Education Journal
• Médecin du Québec

• Maude Abbott (1896–1940) – Canadian physician, among Canada's earliest female medical graduates, internationally renowned expert on congenital heart disease, and one of the first women to obtain a BA from McGill University
• Evan Adams – First Nations medical doctor, medical advisor, Deputy Provincial Health Advisor (BC), and actor
• Maria Louisa Angwin (1849–1898) – first woman licensed to practice medicine in Nova Scotia
• Elizabeth Bagshaw CM (1881–1982) – physician and birth control activist
• Frederick Banting KBE MC LLD (hc) ScD (hc) FRSC (1891–1941) – Nobel laureate, co-discoverer of insulin
• Norman Bethune (1890–1939) – surgeon, inventor, socialist, battlefield doctor in Spain and China
• Wilfred Gordon Bigelow OC LLD (hc) FRSC (1913–2005) – inventor of the first artificial pacemaker
• Daniel Borsuk OQ (1978– ) – Montreal plastic surgeon, pioneer in facial reconstruction, and leader of first Canadian face transplant
• Basil Boulton (1938–2008) – pediatrician and child health advocate
• John Callaghan OC AOE (1923–2004) – pioneer of open-heart surgery
• Chris Giannou OC (born 1949) war surgeon, chief surgeon ICRC
• Patrick Gullane CM, OOnt Head and Neck Surgery and Oncology pioneer at University Health Network, Toronto, helped established chairs in oncology.
• Carl Goresky OC (1932–1996) – physician and scientist
• James Heilman (born 1979/1980) – head of the department of emergency medicine at East Kootenay Regional Hospital in Cranbrook, British Columbia, active contributor to WikiProject Medicine, and a volunteer Wikipedia administrator
• Ernest McCulloch CM OOnt FRSC FRS (1926–2011) – cellular biologist credited with the discovery of stem cell with James Till
• Frances Gertrude McGill (1882–1959) – pioneering forensic pathologist and criminologist
• Henry Morgentaler CM LLD (hc) (1923–2013) – abortionist who helped legalize abortion in Canada and strengthen the power of jury nullification
• William Osler Bt (1849–1919) – physician, called the "father of modern medicine"; wrote Principles and Practice of Medicine
• Wilder Penfield OM CC CMG FRS (1891–1976) – neurosurgeon, discovered electrical stimulation of the brain
• James Rutka OC (born 1956) Canadian pediatric neurosurgeon
• David Sackett CC FRSC (born 1934) – founded the first department of clinical epidemiology in Canada at McMaster University
• Sydney Segal CM OBC (1920–1997) – pediatrician and neonatologist particularly known for his work with sudden infant death syndrome
• Albert Ross Tilley (1904–1988) OBE OC – plastic surgeon

• College of Family Physicians of Canada
• Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada