Positioning theory

In educational contexts, role and position can seem to overlap and many see positioning as another way of explaining someone's role.[7] The constructs are quite different as a role is static and a position is consistently changing depending on the context an individual is in. Davies and Harré[22] explain this difference by using an example of the role of a "mother". There is a general understanding of the role that a mother plays in someone's life but what is missing is the internalized understanding of "mother" to each individual person that plays that role. That is, each person has their own unique lived experience that affects his/her position. One may anticipate becoming a mother one day or may never be in this position. Additionally, they could have a strong or poor relationship with their own mother. There is a history of narratives out of each lived experience that determine one's position towards the idea of "mother".[22] This can be applied in educational contexts as well when looking at difference between the "role" of a teacher as opposed to the "position" of a teacher.[22]

This diagram is used to explain the social significance of positioning acts. All corners of the triangle are intertwined with one another, in other words, if one part of the triangle changes, then the other parts change as a result (e.g., changing the storyline would affect both the position and speech-act).[23] Harré and Van Langenhove explain that what people can do is a function of "the capacities of people to do certain things", "the restrictions imposed upon people to do certain things", and "the intentions that people have to do certain things."[4]

Harré & Moghaddam [23] expand upon the idea that position has both social and individual components. They describe "position" as the rights, duties, and obligations of a person in various social contexts. These rights, duties and obligations are carried through by the characteristics and personality traits of the individual.[23] Traditions and customs are vital sources in the formation of positions.[8] In sum, a position establishes what an individual is authorized to say in accordance with his/her position.[8]

Figure 1. Positioning triangle adapted from Van Langenhove & Harré (1999a p.18)[2]

Each socially meaningful action, intended movement, or speech should be seen as an act of significance.[23] An example of an intended action could be jumping. An individual may be performing this action to jump over an object, follow a physical education instructor, exercise, or model the movement for another person to copy. This action is important once it is given meaning under the context in which it is performed. This action is identified under rules of accepted standards and moral behaviors with looking into the appropriate situation and actions that must come prior to the action performed as well as the consequences that will come about as a result of this action.[23] It is important to note that the normative power of speech acts is not causal.[8] Instead, one speech act can make another one appropriate or accountable.[24]

As a result of speech and other acts, storylines are developed. These social episodes come about as an individual and those around them contribute to a pattern of narratives that occur.[23] The storylines can be seen as who has or does not have a right or a duty to act, and how they may act.[25] When explaining a story, one's position may result in alluding to themselves as a hero, whereas another individual may disagree and have a storyline that portrays that person as the villain.[25] Whilst individuals are conversing with one another, they can use narratives or "storylines" to have their actions and words be purposeful and significant to themselves as well as others.[8]

All social structures can be seen as moral orders that set forward rules for acceptable behavior.[8] Speech acts create and activate moral orders.[8] The capacity of individuals to act independently, comprises out of the possibilities for them to behave against certain moral orders or to establish new moral orders.[8] When an individual performs an action, they develop a personal moral order (e.g., justifying one's own behavior that one would otherwise deem as irresponsible or inappropriate).[8] Personal moral orders can sometimes be seen as stronger than moral orders set in place; moral orders would be rules set about for all people to follow.[8]

Positioning theory brings about the analysis of any social situation as it relates to these three notions.[8]

1.) There are many cultural, legal and institutional moral orders that are pre-determined and assign positions to the individuals (actors). These positions bring about powers and rights that are given to these individuals.[8]

2.) There are expanding and emerging storylines that make up a local moral order where the beginning positions can be confirmed or transformed.[8]

3.) There are personal moral orders of the individuals involved that impact what they will do and say, like refuting and accepting pre-determined positions or the positions developed through conversation.[8]

1.) Embodied self: Singular, continuous and self-identical. It is the unity and continuity of a person's point of view and their actions in various contexts.[26]

2.) Self concept: Beliefs that individuals have about themselves, their moral qualities, their abilities, their fears, and their life. This expands into the sub-concepts of autobiographical self and social self.[26]

a.) Autobiographical self: A form of narrative self-understanding. Autobiographical selves can alter from story to story because of differences based on the audience and situation in which the person is discussing their story to.[26]

b.) Social self: The qualities and traits that an individual displays when they have interactions with others. There are multiple ways that individuals show they 'social self' depending upon the circumstance that they are in.[26]

One person positions another person based on what they say.[27] They could attempt to position someone else in a particular way. This could happen with one individual towards another or the action could occur by a group of individuals. Additionally, one story line can be transferred to another story line in different settings or over time.[28][29][30]

Reflexive positioning is the positioning of oneself.[27] An example of this would be if one tries to position another individual but that individual may not desire to be positioned that way and in turn contests that position as well as repositions themselves in a more desirable way.[27]

Moral positioning occurs when one behaves in accordance with keeping the rights, duties, and obligations of their role.[31]These positions may be in the form of professor-student, parent-child, grocery clerk-customer in which a particular role results in an individual acting and responding in a certain way depending upon their role.[31]

Indirect positioning can be seen as the use of characteristics to position an individual as favorably or unfavorably, with relation to oneself and one's own group desires.[23] An example of this could be positioning one as "stupid" which would also restrict that person from correcting their cognitive performance.[23] This could also be positioning someone as irresponsible which would exclude that individual from taking on meaningful tasks. Harré and Moghaddam use an example of the use of indirect positioning in regards to a leader of a nation being used to position the overall nation itself (e.g., Europe using the phrase "The Cowboy President" in reference to George W. Bush while also indirectly positioning the United States as being an ignorant nation).[23]

Malignant or malevolent positioning is when the discourse about an individual causes others to portray that person in a negative light and treat them poorly as a result.[23] One may view an individual with a disability in a deficit perspective by using malignant positioning while being unaware of this biased perspective.[23]