Stratioti

The stratioti or stradioti (Greek: στρατιώτες stratiotes; Albanian: Stratiotët; Italian: stradioti, stradiotti) were mercenary units from the Balkans recruited mainly by states of southern and central Europe from the 15th century until the middle of the 18th century.[2]

"Stradioti" redirects here. For an island in Montenegro with the same name, see Sveti Marko Island.
Stradioti
French painting of c. 1500 depicting stradioti of the Venetian Army at the Battle of Fornovo[1]
Active15th to 18th centuries
TypeMercenary unit
RoleLight cavalry

Name

The Greek term stratiotis/-ai (στρατιώτης/-αι) was in use since classical antiquity with the sense of "soldier".[3] The same word was used continuously in the Roman and Byzantine period. The Italian term stradioti could therefore be a loan from the Greek word stratiotai (Greek: στρατιώται), i.e. soldiers.[4] Alternatively, it derives from the Italian word strada ("street"), meaning "wayfarer".[5] The Albanian stradioti of Venice were also called cappelletti (sing. cappelletto) because of the small red caps they wore.[6]

History

The stradioti were recruited in Albania, Greece, Dalmatia, Serbia and later Cyprus.[7][8][9][10] Most of the names were Albanian (around 80%),[11] but a good number of the names were of Greek origin, most of them were captains such as Palaiologos, Spandounios, Laskaris, Rhalles, Comnenos, Psendakis, Maniatis, Spyliotis, Alexopoulos, Psaris, Zacharopoulos, Klirakopoulos, and Kondomitis. Others seemed to be of South Slavic origin, such as Soimiris, Vlastimiris, and Voicha.[5] Also among their leaders were members of some old Byzantine noble families such as the Palaiologoi and Komnenoi.[5][12] The precise definition of their ethnic identity was the subject of careful study, while modern scholarship concludes that they were Greeks and Albanians that mainly originated from the Peloponnese.[11]

Republic of Venice and Kingdom of Naples (Italy)

The Republic of Venice first used stratioti in their campaigns against the Ottoman Empire and, from c. 1475, as frontier troops in Friuli. Starting from that period, they began to almost entirely replace the Venetian light cavalry in the army. Apart from the Albanian stradioti, Greek and Italian ones were also deployed in the League of Venice at the Battle of Fornovo (1495).[13] The mercenaries were recruited from the Balkans, mainly Christians but also some Muslims.[14] In 1511, a group of stratioti petitioned for the construction of the Greek community of Venice's Eastern Orthodox church in Venice, the San Giorgio dei Greci,[15] and the Scuola dei Greci (Confraternity of the Greeks), in a neighborhood where a Greek community still resides.[16] Impressed by the unorthodox tactics of the stratioti, other European powers quickly began to hire mercenaries from the same region.

In various medieval sources the recruits are mentioned either as Greeks or Albanians. The bulk of stradioti rank and file were of Albanian origin from regions of Greece, but by the middle of the 16th century there is evidence that many of them had been Hellenized and in some occasions even Italianized. Hellenization was possibly underway prior to service abroad, since stradioti of Albanian origin had settled in Greek lands for two generations before their emigration to Italy. Moreover, since many served under Greek commanders and together with the Greek stradioti, this process continued. Another factor in this assimilative process was the stradioti's and their families' active involvement and affiliation with the Greek Orthodox or Uniate Church communities in the places they lived in Italy.[5]

The Kingdom of Naples hired Albanians, Greeks and Serbs into the Royal Macedonian Regiment (Italian: Reggimento Real Macedone), a light infantry unit active in the 18th century.[17] Spain also recruited this unit.[18]

France
French estradiot and his arms. Notice the short double-pointed spear ("arzegaye"). Engraving, 1724 (G. Daniel).

France under Louis XII recruited some 2,000 stradioti in 1497, two years after the battle of Fornovo. Among the French they were known as estradiots and argoulets. The term "argoulet" is believed to come either from the Greek city of Argos, where many of argoulets come from (Pappas), or from the arcus (bow) and the arquebuse.[19] For some authors argoulets and estradiots are synonymous but for others there are certain differences between them. G. Daniel, citing M. de Montgommeri, says that argoulets and estradiots have the same armoury except that the former wear a helmet.[20] According to others "estradiots" were Albanian horsemen and "argoulets" were Greeks, while Croatians were called "Cravates".[21]

The argoulets were armed with a sword, a mace (metal club) and a short arquebuse. They continued to exist under Charles IX and are noted at the battle of Dreux (1562). They were disrbanded around 1600.[22] The English chronicle writer Edward Hall described the "Stradiotes" at the battle of the Spurs in 1513. They were equipped with short stirrups, small spears, beaver hats, and Turkish swords.[23]

The term "carabins" was also used in France as well as in Spain denoting cavalry and infantry units similar to estradiots and argoulets (Daniel G.)(Bonaparte N.[24]). Units of Carabins seem to exist at least till the early 18th century.[25]

Corps of light infantry mercenaries were periodically recruited from the Balkans or Italy mainly during the 15th to 17th centuries. In 1587, the Duchy of Lorraine recruited 500 Albanian cavalrymen, while from 1588 to 1591 five Albanian light cavalry captains were also recruited.[26]

Spain

Stratioti were first employed by Spain in their Italian expedition (see Italian Wars). Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba ("Gran Capitan") was sent by King Ferdinand II of Aragon ("the Catholic") to support the kingdom of Naples against the French invasion. In Calabria Gonzalo had two hundred "estradiotes Griegos, elite cavalry".[27]

Units of estradiotes served also in the Guard of King Ferdinand and, along with the "Alabarderos", are considered the beginnings of the Spanish Royal Guard.[28]

England
  • In 1514, Henry VIII of England, employed units of Albanian and Greek stradioti during the battles with the Kingdom of Scotland.[16][29]
  • In the 1540s, Duke Edward Seymour of Somerset used Albanian stradioti in his campaign against Scotland.[30]
  • An account of the presence of stratioti in Britain is given by Nikandros Noukios of Corfu. In about 1545 Noukios followed as a non-combatant the English invasion of Scotland where the English forces included Greeks from Argos under the leadership of Thomas of Argos whose "Courage, and prudence, and experience of wars" was lauded by the Corfiot traveller.[31][note 1] Thomas was sent by Henry VIII to Boulogne in 1546, as commander of a battalion of 550 Greeks and was injured in the battle.[32] The King expressed his appreciation to Thomas for his leadership in Boulogne and rewarded him with a good sum of money.

Holy Roman Empire

In the middle of the 18th century, Albanian stratioti were employed by Empress Maria Theresa during the War of the Austrian Succession against Prussian and French troops.[33]

Tactics

The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during this era. In the early 16th century light cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreiter).[34] They employed hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, feigned retreats and other complex maneuvers. In some ways, these tactics echoed those of the Ottoman sipahis and akinci. They had some notable successes also against French heavy cavalry during the Italian Wars.[35]

They were known for cutting off the heads of dead or captured enemies, and according to Commines they were paid by their leaders one ducat per head.[36]

Equipment

The stradioti used javelins, as well as swords, maces, crossbows, bows, and daggers. They traditionally dressed in a mixture of Ottoman, Byzantine and European garb: the armor was initially a simple mail hauberk, replaced by heavier armor in later eras. As mercenaries, the stradioti received wages only as long as their military services were needed.[37]

Notable stratioti

Notes
  1. Cramer’s translation of A.Noukios' work stops exactly where the text starts referring to Thomas of Argos. A Greek historian, Andreas Moustoxydes, published the missing part of the original Greek text, based on a manuscript kept in the Ambrosian Library (Milan). After Cramer's asterisks (end of his translation) the text continues as follows: [Hence, indeed, Thomas also, the general of the Argives from Peloponnesus, with those about him ***] spoke to them so:
    “Comrades, as you see we are in the extreme parts of the world, under the service of a King and a nation in the farthest north. And nothing we brought here from our country other than our courage and bravery. Thus, bravely we stand against our enemies, …. Because we are children of the Greeks and we are not afraid of the barbarian flock. …. Therefore, courageous and in order let us march to the enemy, … , and the famous since olden times virtue of the Greeks let us prove with our action.“
    (*) Έλληνες in the original Greek text. This incident happened during the Sieges of Boulogne (1544–1546).

References
  1. Nicolle & McBride 1988, p. 44.
  2. Tardivel 1991, p. 134.
  3. Liddell H., Scott R., A Greek-English Lexicon, στρατιώτης (e.g. Herodotus 4,134, Xenophon, Cyrus An. 7, ch. 1, 4 etc.)
  4. Trecanni (ed.), Grande Enciclopedia Italiana, "Stradioti": "dal basso greco στρατιώται"; Societa Italiana di Studi Araldici 2005, p. 3: "dal greco stratiòta".
  5. Pappas (Sam Houston State University).
  6. Folengo & Mullaney 2008, p. 491.
  7. Nicolle, 1989.
  8. B. N. Floria, "Vykhodtsy iz Balkanakh stran na russkoi sluzhbe," Balkanskia issledovaniia. 3. Osloboditel'nye dvizheniia na Balkanakh (Moscow, 1978), pp. 57-63.
  9. Hungary and the fall of Eastern Europe 1000-1568 by David Nicolle, Angus McBride: "John Comnenus [...] settled Serbs as stratioti around Izmir..."
  10. Nicol, Donald M. (1988). Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural relations. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 37. "Young men recruited from among Greeks and Albanians. They were known as stradioti from the Greek word for soldier."
  11. Birtachas, Stathis (2018). "Stradioti, Cappelletti, Compagnie or Milizie Greche: 'Greek' Mounted and Foot Troops in the Venetian State (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries". In Georgios Theotokis; Aysel Yıldız (eds.). A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea: Aspects of War, Diplomacy, and Military Elites. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 327–328. ISBN 978-90-04-31509-9. From studies on the provenance of their names it is deduced that about 80% of the stradiots were of Albanian and very few of Slav origin (Crovati). The remainder were Greek and, for the most part, captains (capitani di stradioti).
  12. Nicolle, 2002: p. 16
  13. Setton 1976, p. 494; Nicolle & Rothero 1989, p. 16.
  14. Detrez & Plas 2005, p. 134.
  15. Detrez & Plas 2005, p. 134, Footnote #24.
  16. English Historical Review 2000, p. 192.
  17. Alex N. Dragnich (1994). Serbia's Historical Heritage. East European Monographs. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-88033-244-6.
  18. Modern Greek Studies Association (1976). Hellenism and the first Greek war of liberation (1821-1830): continuity and change. Institute for Balkan Studies. p. 72.
  19. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue françoise, vol. 1
  20. Daniel R.P.G. (1724) Histoire de la milice francoise, et des changemens qui s'y sont ... , Amsterdam, vol. 1, pp. 166-171.
  21. Virol M. (2007) Les oisivetes de monsieur de Vauban, edition integrale, Champ Vallon, Seyssel, p. 988, footnote 3.
  22. La Grand Encyclopedie, Eole-Fanucci, Paris (undated), vol. 16, article "Argoulet"
  23. Hall, Edward, Chronicle (1809), p. 543, 550
  24. Bonaparte N. Études sur le passé et l'avenir de l'artillerie, Paris, 1846, vol. 1, p. 161
  25. Boyer Abel (1710) The history of the reign of Queen Anne, year the eight, London, p. 86. A list of French captured by the British at the battle of Tasnieres (1709) includes an officer of the "Royal Carabins"
  26. Monter 2007, p. 76.
  27. Historia del Rey Don Fernando el Catolico: De las empresas y ligas de Italia, book V, p. 3.
  28. LA GUARDIA REAL Archived 2010-11-28 at the Wayback Machine
  29. Higham 1972, p. 171.
  30. Hammer 2003, p. 24.
  31. Nicander Nucius, The second book of the travels of Nicander Nucius of Corcyra, ed. by Rev. J.A. Cramer, 1841, London, p.90. See also Note 1.
  32. Moustoxydes Andreas (1856) Nikandros Noukios, in the periodical Pandora, vol. 7, No. 154, 15 Augh. 1856, p. 222 In Greek language.
    Andreas Moustoxydes was a Greek historian and politician.
  33. Howard 2009, p. 77.
  34. Downing 1992, p. 66.
  35. Nicolle & Rothero 1989, p. 36.
  36. DeCommines, Philippe, Lettres et Negotiations, with comments by Kervyn De Lettenhove, ed. 1868, V. Devaux et Cie. Bruxelles, vol. 2, p. 200, 220: "quinze cents estradiotes grecs ou albanais, "vaillans hommes" qui recevaient in ducat par tete d' ennemi qu'ils rapportaient a leurs chefs".
  37. Hoerder 2002, p. 63: "Throughout Europe footmen replaced knights, that is, cavalry. They used new weapons and came with regionally varying skills: English archers and crossbowmen, Swiss pikemen, Flemish burgher forces, and, later, Italian gunfighters or exiled Albanian and Greek stradioti on light horse (from Italian strada: street). Mercenaries hired on for pay under "military enterprisers" received wages only as long as work was available."
  38. Nicol 1994, p. 104; Nicol 1992, p. 417; Nicol 1968, p. 231.
  39. Nicolle & Rothero 1989, p. 16.
  40. Cronaca Cittadina II
  41. Medin, Antonio. La Obsidione di Padua del MDIX, ed. Romagnoli. Bologna, 1892.
  42. Sathas 1867, p. 97.

Sources

Primary sources
  • Bembi, Petri (1551). Historiae Venetae. Venetiis: Apud Aldi Filios.Available online in Latin language.
  • Bembo, Pietro (1780). Storia Veneta. Venice, Italy. In Italian language.

Secondary sources

Further reading
  • Curt Johnson: The French Army of the Early Italian Wars
  • Lopez, R. Il principio della guerra veneto-turca nel 1463. "Archivio Veneto", 5 serie, 15 (1934), pp. 47–131.
  • Μομφερράτου, Αντ. Γ. Σιγισμούνδος Πανδόλφος Μαλατέστας. Πόλεμος Ενετών και Τούρκων εν Πελοποννήσω κατά 1463-6. Αθήνα, 1914.
  • Sathas, K. N. Documents inédits relatifs à l' histoire de la Grèce au Moyen Âge, publiés sous les auspices de la Chambre des députés de Grèce. Tom. VI: Jacomo Barbarigo, Dispacci della guerra di Peloponneso (1465-6), Paris, 1880–90, pp. 1-116.
  • Κορρέ Β. Κατερίνα,"Έλληνες στρατιώτες στο Bergamo. Οι πολιτικές προεκτάσεις ενός εκκλησιαστικού ζητήματος", Θησαυρίσματα 28 (2008), 289-336.
  • Stathis Birtachas, «La memoria degli stradioti nella letteratura italiana del tardo Rinascimento», in Tempo, spazio e memoria nella letteratura italiana. Omaggio ad Antonio Tabucchi / Χρόνος, τόπος και μνήμη στην ιταλική λογοτεχνία. Τιμή στον Antonio Tabucchi, a cura di Z. Zografidou, Salonicco, Università Aristotele di Salonicco – Aracne – University Studio Press, 2012, pp. 124–142. Online: https://www.academia.edu/2770159/La_memoria_degli_stradioti_nella_letteratura_italiana_del_tardo_Rinascimento
  • "Stradioti, Cappelletti, Compagnie or Milizie Greche: ‘Greek’ Mounted and Foot Troops in the Venetian State (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries)", in A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea: Aspects of War, Diplomacy and Military Elites, eds. Georgios Theotokis and Aysel Yildiz, Leiden: Brill, 2018, pp. 325–346.
  • Media related to Stratioti at Wikimedia Commons
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