Tuvalu

Tuvalu (/tˈvɑːl/ too-VAH-loo; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. The country lies east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands (which belong to the Solomon Islands), northeast of Vanuatu, southeast of Nauru, south of Kiribati, west of Tokelau, northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna, and north of Fiji. It is composed of three reef islands and six atolls spread out between the latitude of to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line.[4] Tuvalu has a population of 10,507 (2017 Census).[5] The total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi).

Tuvalu

Motto: "Tuvalu mo te Atua" (Tuvaluan)
"Tuvalu for the Almighty"
Anthem: Tuvalu mo te Atua (Tuvaluan)
Tuvalu for the Almighty

Royal anthem: God Save the Queen
Capital
and largest city
Funafuti
8°31′S 179°12′E
Official languages
Ethnic groups
Religion
Christianity (Church of Tuvalu)[1]
Demonym(s)Tuvaluan
GovernmentUnitary non-partisan parliamentary constitutional monarchy
 Monarch
Elizabeth II
Mrs. Teniku Talesi Honolulu (Acting)
Kausea Natano
LegislatureParliament
Independence
 from the United Kingdom
1 October 1978
Area
 Total
26 km2 (10 sq mi)[2] (191st)
 Water (%)
negligible
Population
 2019 estimate
11,646 (229th)
 2017 census
10,645
 Density
475.88/km2 (1,232.5/sq mi) (27th)
GDP (PPP)2016 estimate
 Total
$39 million[3] (226th)
 Per capita
$3,566[3] (156th)
GDP (nominal)2020 estimate
 Total
$45 million[3] (194th)
 Per capita
$2,970[3] (118th)
Currency (AUD)
Time zoneUTC+12
Driving sideleft
Calling code+688
ISO 3166 codeTV
Internet TLD.tv

The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were Polynesians. The origins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about three thousand years ago.[6] During pre-European-contact times, Polynesians conducted frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as their navigation skills enabled them to make planned journeys via double-hull sailing canoes or outrigger canoes.[7]

Scholars believe that the Polynesians spread out from Samoa and Tonga into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to further migration into the Polynesian outliers in Melanesia and Micronesia.[8][9][10]

In 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. The island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island in 1819; the name Ellice was applied to all of the nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. Great Britain claimed control over the Ellice Islands as within their sphere of influence in the late 19th century, as the result of a treaty between Great Britain and Germany relating to the demarcation of the spheres of influence in the Pacific Ocean.[11] Captain Gibson of HMS Curacoa declared each of the Ellice Islands as a British Protectorate between 9 and 16 October 1892. Britain assigned a Resident Commissioner to administer the Ellice Islands from 1892 to 1916, as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT). From 1916 to 1975, they were managed as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony.

A referendum was held in 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration. As a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony de jure ceased to exist on 1 October 1975, and on 1 January 1976 the old administration was officially separated.[12] The separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu were formed. Tuvalu became fully independent as a sovereign state within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978. On 5 September 2000, Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.

History

Prehistory

The origins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding the migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. During pre-European-contact times, there was frequent canoe voyaging between the nearer islands including Samoa and Tonga.[13] Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means "eight standing together" in Tuvaluan (compare to *walo meaning "eight" in Proto-Austronesian). Possible evidence of fire in the Caves of Nanumanga may indicate human occupation for thousands of years.

An important creation myth of the islands of Tuvalu is the story of the te Pusi mo te Ali (the Eel and the Flounder), who created the islands of Tuvalu.[14] Te Ali (the flounder) is believed to be the origin of the flat atolls of Tuvalu and the te Pusin (the Eel) is the model for the coconut palms that are important in the lives of Tuvaluans. The stories of the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On Niutao,[15] Funafuti and Vaitupu, for instance, the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa,[16][17] whereas on Nanumea, the founding ancestor is described as being from Tonga.[16]

Early contacts with other cultures

A Tuvaluan man in traditional attire drawn by Alfred Agate in 1841, during the United States Exploring Expedition[18]

Tuvalu was first sighted by Europeans on 16 January 1568, during the voyage of Álvaro de Mendaña from Spain, who sailed past Nui and charted it as Isla de Jesús (Spanish for "Island of Jesus") because the previous day was the feast of the Holy Name. Mendaña made contact with the islanders but was unable to land.[19][20] During Mendaña's second voyage across the Pacific, he passed Niulakita on 29 August 1595, which he named La Solitaria.[20][21]

Captain John Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764, during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of the Dolphin (1751).[22] He charted the atolls as Lagoon Islands. Keith S. Chambers and Doug Munro (1980) identified Niutao as the island that Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa sailed past on 5 May 1781, thus solving what Europeans had called The Mystery of Gran Cocal.[21][23] Mourelle's map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain.[23] Longitude could be reckoned only crudely at the time, as accurate chronometers did not become available until the late 18th century.

The next European to visit was American Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer Rebecca, sailing under British colours.[24][25] He passed through the southern Tuvaluan waters in May 1819. De Peyster sighted Nukufetau and Funafuti, which he named Ellice's Island after an English politician, Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's cargo.[23][26] The name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay.[27]

In 1820, the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev visited Nukufetau as commander of the Mirny.[23] Louis Isidore Duperrey, captain of La Coquille, sailed past Nanumanga in May 1824 during a circumnavigation of the earth (1822–1825).[28] A Dutch expedition (the frigate Maria Reigersberg) found Nui on the morning of 14 June 1825, and named the main island (Fenua Tapu) as Nederlandsch Eiland.[29]

Whalers began roving the Pacific, although they visited Tuvalu only infrequently because of the difficulties of landing on the atolls. The American Captain George Barrett of the Nantucket whaler Independence II has been identified as the first whaler to hunt the waters around Tuvalu.[26] He bartered coconuts from the people of Nukulaelae in November 1821, and also visited Niulakita.[21] He established a shore camp on Sakalua islet of Nukufetau, where coal was used to melt down the whale blubber.[30]

For less than a year between 1862 and 1863, Peruvian ships engaged in the so-called "blackbirding" trade, by which they recruited or impressed workers, combed the smaller islands of Polynesia from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific to Tuvalu and the southern atolls of the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati). They sought recruits to fill the extreme labour shortage in Peru.[31] While some islanders were voluntary recruits, the "blackbirders" were notorious for enticing islanders on to ships with tricks, such as pretending to be Christian missionaries, as well as kidnapping islanders at gunpoint. The Rev. A. W. Murray,[32] the earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, reported that in 1863 about 170 people were taken from Funafuti and about 250 were taken from Nukulaelae,[23] as there were fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae.[33][34]

Christianity came to Tuvalu in 1861 when Elekana, a deacon of a Congregational church in Manihiki, Cook Islands, became caught in a storm and drifted for eight weeks before landing at Nukulaelae on 10 May 1861.[23][35] Elekana began preaching Christianity. He was trained at Malua Theological College, a London Missionary Society (LMS) school in Samoa, before beginning his work in establishing the Church of Tuvalu.[23]

In 1865, the Rev. A. W. Murray of the LMS, a Protestant congregationalist missionary society, arrived as the first European missionary; he also evangelised among the inhabitants of Tuvalu. By 1878 Protestantism was considered well established, as there were preachers on each island.[23] In the later 19th and early 20th centuries, the ministers of what became the Church of Tuvalu (Te Ekalesia Kelisiano Tuvalu) were predominantly Samoans, who influenced the development of the Tuvaluan language and the music of Tuvalu.[36]

The islands came into Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British protectorate by Captain Gibson of HMS Curacoa, between 9 and 16 October 1892.[37]

Trading firms and traders

Islands of Tuvalu

Trading companies became active in Tuvalu in the mid-19th century; the trading companies engaged palagi traders who lived on the islands. John (also known as Jack) O'Brien was the first European to settle in Tuvalu; he became a trader on Funafuti in the 1850s. He married Salai, the daughter of the paramount chief of Funafuti. Louis Becke, who later found success as a writer, was a trader on Nanumanga from April 1880 until the trading station was destroyed later that year in a cyclone.[38] He then became a trader on Nukufetau.[39][40][41]

In 1892, Captain Davis of HMS Royalist reported on trading activities and traders on each of the islands visited.[42] Captain Davis identified the following traders in the Ellice Group: Edmund Duffy (Nanumea); Jack Buckland (Niutao); Harry Nitz (Vaitupu); Jack O'Brien (Funafuti); Alfred Restieaux and Emile Fenisot (Nukufetau); and Martin Kleis (Nui).[43] During this time, the greatest number of palagi traders lived on the atolls, acting as agents for the trading companies. Some islands would have competing traders, while dryer islands might only have a single trader.[44]

In the later 1890s and into first decade of the 20th century, structural changes occurred in the operation of the Pacific trading companies; they moved from a practice of having traders resident on each island to instead becoming a business operation where the supercargo (the cargo manager of a trading ship) would deal directly with the islanders when a ship visited an island. From 1900, the numbers of palagi traders in Tuvalu declined; the last of them were Fred Whibley on Niutao, Alfred Restieaux on Nukufetau,[45] and Martin Kleis on Nui.[43] By 1909 there were no more resident palagi traders representing the trading companies,[43][44] although Whibley, Restieaux[46] and Kleis[47] remained in the islands until their deaths.

Scientific expeditions and travellers

A man from the Nukufetau atoll, drawn by Alfred Thomas Agate in 1841

The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Funafuti, Nukufetau and Vaitupu in 1841.[48] During this expedition, engraver and illustrator Alfred Thomas Agate recorded the dress and tattoo patterns of the men of Nukufetau.[49]

In 1885 or 1886, the New Zealand photographer Thomas Andrew visited Funafuti[50] and Nui.[51][52]

In 1890, Robert Louis Stevenson, his wife Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson and her son Lloyd Osbourne sailed on the Janet Nicoll, a trading steamer owned by Henderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New Zealand, which operated between Sydney and Auckland and into the central Pacific.[53] The Janet Nicoll visited three of the Ellice Islands;[54] while Fanny records that they made landfall at Funafuti, Niutao and Nanumea, Jane Resture suggests that it was more likely they landed at Nukufetau rather than Funafuti.[55] An account of this voyage was written by Fanny Stevenson and published under the title The Cruise of the Janet Nichol,[56] together with photographs taken by Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne.

In 1894, Count Rudolf Festetics de Tolna, his wife Eila (née Haggin) and her daughter Blanche Haggin visited Funafuti aboard the yacht Le Tolna.[57] The Count spent several days photographing men and woman on Funafuti.[58][59]

Woman on Funafuti (1900)
photography by Harry Clifford Fassett

The boreholes on Funafuti, at the site now called Darwin's Drill,[60] are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating the formation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral of Pacific atolls. This investigation followed the work on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs conducted by Charles Darwin in the Pacific. Drilling occurred in 1896, 1897 and 1898.[61] Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney was a member of the 1896 "Funafuti Coral Reef Boring Expedition of the Royal Society", under Professor William Sollas and led the expedition in 1897.[62] Photographers on these trips recorded people, communities, and scenes at Funafuti.[63]

Charles Hedley, a naturalist at the Australian Museum, accompanied the 1896 expedition, and during his stay on Funafuti he collected invertebrate and ethnological objects. The descriptions of these were published in Memoir III of the Australian Museum Sydney between 1896 and 1900. Hedley also wrote the General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti,[64] The Ethnology of Funafuti,[65] and The Mollusca of Funafuti.[66][67] Edgar Waite was also part of the 1896 expedition and published The mammals, reptiles, and fishes of Funafuti.[68] William Rainbow described the spiders and insects collected at Funafuti in The insect fauna of Funafuti.[69]

Harry Clifford Fassett, captain's clerk and photographer, recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti in 1900 during a visit of USFC Albatross when the United States Fish Commission was investigating the formation of coral reefs on Pacific atolls.[70]

Colonial administration

Stamps of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands with portraits of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II

The Ellice Islands were administered as a British Protectorate from 1892 to 1916, as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), by a Resident Commissioner based in the Gilbert Islands. The administration of the BWTP ended in 1916, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony was established, which existed until October 1975.

Second World War

During the Second World War, Ellice Islands were informally aligned with the Allies. Early in the war, the Japanese invaded and occupied Makin, Tarawa and other islands in what is now Kiribati.

The United States Marine Corps landed on Funafuti on 2 October 1942[71] and on Nanumea and Nukufetau in August 1943. Funafuti was used as a base to prepare for the subsequent seaborne attacks on the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati) that were occupied by Japanese forces.[72]

The islanders assisted the American forces building airfields on Funafuti, Nanumea and Nukufetau and to unload supplies from ships.[73] On Funafuti, the islanders shifted to the smaller islets so as to allow the American forces to build the airfield and to build naval bases and port facilities on Fongafale.[74] A Naval Construction Battalion (Seabees) built a seaplane ramp on the lagoon side of Fongafale islet, for seaplane operations by both short- and long-range seaplanes, and a compacted coral runway was also constructed on Fongafale,[75] with runways also constructed to create Nanumea Airfield[76] and Nukufetau Airfield.[77] USN Patrol Torpedo Boats (PTs) were based at Funafuti from 2 November 1942 to 11 May 1944.[78]

The atolls of Tuvalu acted as staging posts during the preparation for the Battle of Tarawa and the Battle of Makin that commenced on 20 November 1943, which were part of the implementation of "Operation Galvanic".[79] After the war, the military airfield on Funafuti was developed into Funafuti International Airport.

Post-World War II – transition to independence

The formation of the United Nations after World War II resulted in the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization committing to a process of decolonisation; as a consequence, the British colonies in the Pacific started on a path to self-determination.[80][81]

In 1974, the ministerial government was introduced to the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony through a change to the Constitution. In that year a general election was held,[82] and a referendum was held in 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration.[83] As a consequence of the referendum, separation occurred in two stages. The Tuvaluan Order 1975, which took effect on 1 October 1975, recognised Tuvalu as a separate British dependency with its own government. The second stage occurred on 1 January 1976, when separate administrations were created out of the civil service of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.[84][85]

Elections to the House of Assembly of the British Colony of Tuvalu were held on 27 August 1977, with Toaripi Lauti being appointed Chief Minister in the House of Assembly of the Colony of Tuvalu on 1 October 1977. The House of Assembly was dissolved in July 1978, with the government of Toaripi Lauti continuing as a caretaker government until the 1981 elections were held.[86] Toaripi Lauti became the first Prime Minister on 1 October 1978, when Tuvalu became an independent nation.[80][87] That date is also celebrated as the country's Independence Day and is a public holiday.[88]

Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978. On 5 September 2000, Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.

Government

Government office building

Parliamentary democracy

The Constitution of Tuvalu states that it is "the supreme law of Tuvalu" and that "all other laws shall be interpreted and applied subject to this Constitution"; it sets out the Principles of the Bill of Rights and the Protection of the Fundamental Rights and Freedoms.[89]

Tuvalu is a parliamentary democracy and Commonwealth realm with Elizabeth II as Queen of Tuvalu. Since the Queen resides in the United Kingdom, she is represented in Tuvalu by a Governor General, whom she appoints upon the advice of the Prime Minister of Tuvalu.[86] In 1986 and 2008, referenda confirmed the monarchy.

From 1974 (the creation of the British colony of Tuvalu) until independence, the legislative body of Tuvalu was called the House of the Assembly or Fale I Fono. Following independence in October 1978, the House of the Assembly was renamed the Parliament of Tuvalu or Palamene o Tuvalu.[86] The unicameral Parliament has 15 members, with elections held every four years. The members of parliament select the Prime Minister (who is the head of government) and the Speaker of Parliament. The ministers that form the Cabinet are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. There are no formal political parties; election campaigns are largely based on personal/family ties and reputations.

The Tuvalu National Library and Archives holds "vital documentation on the cultural, social and political heritage of Tuvalu", including surviving records from the colonial administration, as well as Tuvalu government archives.[90]

Tuvalu is a state party to the following human rights treaties: the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC); the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).[91] Tuvalu has commitments to ensuring human rights are respected under the Universal Periodic Review (UPR), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Te Kakeega III – National Strategy for Sustainable Development-2016-2020 (TK III), which sets out the development agenda of the Government of Tuvalu. TK III includes new strategic areas, in addition to the eight identified in TK II, which are climate change; environment; migration and urbanisation; and oceans and seas.[92]

There are eight Island Courts and Lands Courts; appeals in relation to land disputes are made to the Lands Courts Appeal Panel. Appeals from the Island Courts and the Lands Courts Appeal Panel are made to the Magistrates Court, which has jurisdiction to hear civil cases involving up to $T10,000. The superior court is the High Court of Tuvalu as it has unlimited original jurisdiction to determine the Law of Tuvalu and to hear appeals from the lower courts. Rulings of the High Court can be appealed to the Court of Appeal of Tuvalu. From the Court of Appeal, there is a right of appeal to Her Majesty in Council, i.e., the Privy Council in London.[93][94]

With regard to the judiciary, "the first female Island Court magistrate was appointed to the Island Court in Nanumea in the 1980s and another in Nukulaelae in the early 1990s." There were 7 female magistrates in the Island Courts of Tuvalu (as of 2007) in comparison "to the past where only one woman magistrate served in the Magistrate Court of Tuvalu."[95]

The Law of Tuvalu comprises the Acts voted into law by the Parliament of Tuvalu and statutory instruments that become law; certain Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom (during the time Tuvalu was either a British protectorate or British colony); the common law; and customary law (particularly in relation to the ownership of land).[93][94] The land tenure system is largely based on kaitasi (extended family ownership).[96]

Foreign relations

Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen visits Governor-General of Tuvalu Iakoba Italeli in November 2017

Tuvalu participates in the work of the Pacific Community (SPC) and is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations. It has maintained a mission at the United Nations in New York City since 2000. It is a member of the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.

Tuvalu maintains close relations with Fiji, New Zealand, Australia (which has maintained a High Commission in Tuvalu since 2018), Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the United States of America, the United Kingdom and the European Union. It has diplomatic relations with Taiwan; the country maintains one of the two foreign embassies in Tuvalu and has a large assistance programme in the islands.

A major international priority for Tuvalu in the UN, at the 2002 Earth Summit in Johannesburg, South Africa and in other international fora, is promoting concern about global warming and the possible sea level rising. Tuvalu advocates ratification and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. In December 2009, the islands stalled talks on climate change at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, fearing some other developing countries were not committing fully to binding deals on a reduction in carbon emissions. Their chief negotiator stated, "Tuvalu is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change and our future rests on the outcome of this meeting."[97]

Tuvalu participates in the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), which is a coalition of small island and low-lying coastal countries that have concerns about their vulnerability to the adverse effects of global climate change. Under the Majuro Declaration, which was signed on 5 September 2013, Tuvalu has made a commitment to implement power generation of 100% renewable energy (between 2013 and 2020), which is proposed to be implemented using Solar PV (95% of demand) and biodiesel (5% of demand). The feasibility of wind power generation will be considered.[98] Tuvalu participates in the operations of the Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP).[99]

Tuvalu is party to a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed soon after independence and ratified by the US Senate in 1983, under which the United States renounced prior territorial claims to four Tuvaluan islands (Funafuti, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and Niulakita) under the Guano Islands Act of 1856.[100]

Tuvalu participates in the operations of the Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA)[101] and the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC).[102] The Tuvaluan government, the US government, and the governments of other Pacific islands are parties to the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT), which entered into force in 1988.[103] Tuvalu is also a member of the Nauru Agreement which addresses the management of tuna purse seine fishing in the tropical western Pacific. The United States and the Pacific Islands countries have negotiated the Multilateral Fisheries Treaty (which encompasses the South Pacific Tuna Treaty) to confirm access to the fisheries in the Western and Central Pacific for US tuna boats. Tuvalu and the other members of the Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) and the United States have settled a tuna fishing deal for 2015; a longer-term deal will be negotiated. The treaty is an extension of the Nauru Agreement and provides for the US flagged purse seine vessels to fish 8,300 days in the region in return for a payment of US$90 million made up by tuna fishing industry and US-Government contributions.[104] In 2015, Tuvalu refused to sell fishing days to certain nations and fleets that have blocked Tuvaluan initiatives to develop and sustain their own fishery.[105] In 2016, the Minister of Natural Resources drew attention to Article 30 of the WCPF Convention, which describes the collective obligation of members to consider the disproportionate burden that management measures might place on small-island developing states.[106]

In July 2013, Tuvalu signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to establish the Pacific Regional Trade and Development Facility, which Facility originated in 2006, in the context of negotiations for an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between Pacific ACP States and the European Union. The rationale for the creation of the Facility being to improve the delivery of aid to Pacific island countries in support of the Aid-for-Trade (AfT) requirements. The Pacific ACP States are the countries in the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement with the European Union.[107] On 31 May 2017 the first enhanced High Level Political Dialogue between Tuvalu and the European Union under the Cotonou Agreement was held in Funafuti.[108]

On 18 February 2016, Tuvalu signed the Pacific Islands Development Forum Charter and formally joined the Pacific Islands Development Forum (PIDF).[109] In June 2017, Tuvalu signed the Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER).[110][111]

Defence and law enforcement

Tuvalu has no regular military forces, and spends no money on the military. Its national police force, the Tuvalu Police Force headquartered in Funafuti, includes a maritime surveillance unit, customs, prisons and immigration. Police officers wear British-style uniforms.

From 1994 to 2019 the Tuvalu policed its 200 kilometre Exclusive Economic Zone with the Pacific-class patrol boat HMTSS Te Mataili, provided by Australia. Australia gave Tuvalu and 11 other partners in the Pacific Forum, for use in maritime surveillance and fishery patrol and for search-and-rescue missions.[112] ("HMTSS" stands for His/Her Majesty's Tuvaluan State Ship or for His/Her Majesty's Tuvalu Surveillance Ship.) On 7 April 2019, Australia donated a Guardian-class patrol boat that was named HMTSS Te Mataili II, and which will be operated by the maritime surveillance unit of the Tuvalu Police Force.[113][114]

Male homosexuality is illegal in Tuvalu.[115] Crime in Tuvalu is not a significant social problem due to an effective criminal justice system, also due to the influence of the Falekaupule (the traditional assembly of elders of each island) and the central role of religious institutions in the Tuvaluan community.

Administrative divisions

Tuvalu consists of six atolls and three reef islands. The smallest, Niulakita, is administered as part of Niutao.

Each island has its own high-chief, or ulu-aliki, and several sub-chiefs (alikis). The community council is the Falekaupule (the traditional assembly of elders) or te sina o fenua (literally: "grey-hairs of the land"). In the past, another caste, the priests (tofuga), were also amongst the decision-makers. The ulu-aliki and aliki exercise informal authority at the local level. Ulu-aliki are always chosen based on ancestry. Under the Falekaupule Act (1997),[116] the powers and functions of the Falekaupule are now shared with the pule o kaupule (elected village presidents; one on each atoll).[117]

A map of Tuvalu.

Local government districts consisting of more than one islet:

Local government districts consisting of only one island:

Tuvalu has ISO 3166-2 codes defined for one town council (Funafuti) and seven island councils. Niulakita, which now has its own island council, is not listed, as it is administered as part of Niutao.

Society

Demographics

Population distribution of Tuvalu by age group (2014).

The population at the 2002 census was 9,561,[118] and the population at the 2017 census was 10,645.[119][120] The most recent evaluation in 2020 puts the population at 11,342.[121] The population of Tuvalu is primarily of Polynesian ethnicity, with approximately 5.6% of the population being Micronesians speaking Gilbertese, especially on Nui.[119]

Life expectancy for women in Tuvalu is 70.2 years and 65.6 years for men (2018 est.).[122] The country's population growth rate is 0.86% (2018 est.).[122] The net migration rate is estimated at −6.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.).[122] The threat of global warming in Tuvalu is not yet a dominant motivation for migration as Tuvaluans appear to prefer to continue living on the islands for reasons of lifestyle, culture and identity.[123]

From 1947 to 1983, a number of Tuvaluans from Vaitupu migrated to Kioa, an island in Fiji.[124] The settlers from Tuvalu were granted Fijian citizenship in 2005. In recent years, New Zealand and Australia have been the primary destinations for migration or seasonal work.

In 2014, attention was drawn to an appeal to the New Zealand Immigration and Protection Tribunal against the deportation of a Tuvaluan family on the basis that they were "climate change refugees", who would suffer hardship resulting from the environmental degradation of Tuvalu.[125] However, the subsequent grant of residence permits to the family was made on grounds unrelated to the refugee claim.[126] The family was successful in their appeal because, under the relevant immigration legislation, there were "exceptional circumstances of a humanitarian nature" that justified the grant of resident permits, for the family was integrated into New Zealand society with a sizeable extended family that had effectively relocated to New Zealand.[126] Indeed, in 2013 a claim of a Kiribati man of being a "climate change refugee" under the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) was determined by the New Zealand High Court to be untenable, for there was no persecution or serious harm related to any of the five stipulated Refugee Convention grounds.[127] Permanent migration to Australia and New Zealand, such as for family reunification, requires compliance with the immigration legislation of those countries.[128]

New Zealand has an annual quota of 75 Tuvaluans granted work permits under the Pacific Access Category, as announced in 2001.[129] The applicants register for the Pacific Access Category (PAC) ballots; the primary criterion is that the principal applicant must have a job offer from a New Zealand employer.[130] Tuvaluans also have access to seasonal employment in the horticulture and viticulture industries in New Zealand under the Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) Work Policy introduced in 2007 allowing for employment of up to 5,000 workers from Tuvalu and other Pacific islands.[131] Tuvaluans can participate in the Australian Pacific Seasonal Worker Program, which allows Pacific Islanders to obtain seasonal employment in the Australian agriculture industry, in particular, cotton and cane operations; fishing industry, in particular aquaculture; and with accommodation providers in the tourism industry.[132]

Languages

The Tuvaluan language and English are the national languages of Tuvalu. Tuvaluan is of the Ellicean group of Polynesian languages, distantly related to all other Polynesian languages such as Hawaiian, Māori, Tahitian, Rapa Nui, Samoan and Tongan. It is most closely related to the languages spoken on the Polynesian outliers in Micronesia and northern and central Melanesia. The Tuvaluan language has borrowed from the Samoan language, as a consequence of Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries being predominantly Samoan.[36][133]

The Tuvaluan language is spoken by virtually everyone, while a language very similar to Gilbertese is spoken on Nui.[133][134] English is also an official language but is not spoken in daily use. Parliament and official functions are conducted in the Tuvaluan language.

There are about 13,000 Tuvaluan speakers worldwide.[135][136] Radio Tuvalu transmits Tuvaluan-language programming.

Religion

The Congregational Christian Church of Tuvalu, which is part of the Christian Reformed tradition, is the state church of Tuvalu;[137] although in practice this merely entitles it to "the privilege of performing special services on major national events".[138] Its adherents comprise about 97% of the 10,837 (2012 census) inhabitants of the archipelago.[137][139] The Constitution of Tuvalu guarantees freedom of religion, including the freedom to practice, the freedom to change religion, the right not to receive religious instruction at school or to attend religious ceremonies at school, and the right not to "take an oath or make an affirmation that is contrary to his religion or belief".[140]

Other Christian groups include the Roman Catholic community served by the Mission Sui Iuris of Funafuti, and the Seventh-day Adventist which has 2.8% of the population.[122] According to its own estimates, the Tuvalu Brethren Church has about 500 members (i.e. 4.5% of the population).[141]

The Baháʼí Faith is the largest minority religion and the largest non-Christian religion in Tuvalu. It constitutes 2.0% of the population.[122] The Baháʼís are the majority on the Nanumea Island of Tuvalu.[142] The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community consists of about 50 members (0.4% of the population).[143]

The introduction of Christianity ended the worship of ancestral spirits and other deities (animism),[144] along with the power of the vaka-atua (the priests of the old religions). Laumua Kofe describes the objects of worship as varying from island to island, although ancestor worship was described by Rev. D.J. Whitmee in 1870 as being common practice.[145]

Health

The Princess Margaret Hospital on Funafuti is the only hospital in Tuvalu and the primary provider of medical services.

Since the late 20th century the biggest health problem in Tuvalu, and the leading cause of death, has been heart disease,[146] which is closely followed by diabetes[147] and high blood pressure.[146] In 2016 the majority of deaths resulted from cardiac diseases, with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, and cerebral-vascular disease among the other causes of death.[148]

Education

Children on Niutao

Education in Tuvalu is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 years. Each island has a primary school. Motufoua Secondary School is located on Vaitupu.[149] Students board at the school during the school term, returning to their home islands each school vacation. Fetuvalu Secondary School, a day school operated by the Church of Tuvalu, is on Funafuti.[150]

Fetuvalu offers the Cambridge syllabus. Motufoua offers the Fiji Junior Certificate (FJC) at year 10, Tuvaluan Certificate at Year 11 and the Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate (PSSC) at Year 12, which is set by SPBEA, the Fiji-based exam board.[151] Sixth form students who pass their PSSC go on to the Augmented Foundation Programme, funded by the Tuvalu government. This program is required for tertiary education programmes outside of Tuvalu and is available at the University of the South Pacific (USP) Extension Centre in Funafuti.[152]

Required attendance at school is 10 years for males and 11 years for females (2001).[122] The adult literacy rate is 99.0% (2002).[153] In 2010, there were 1,918 students who were taught by 109 teachers (98 certified and 11 uncertified). The teacher-pupil ratio for primary schools in Tuvalu is around 1:18 for all schools with the exception of Nauti School, which has a ratio of 1:27. Nauti School on Funafuti is the largest primary school in Tuvalu with more than 900 students (45 percent of the total primary school enrollment). The pupil-teacher ratio for Tuvalu is low compared to the entire Pacific region (ratio of 1:29).[154]

Community Training Centres (CTCs) have been established within the primary schools on each atoll. They provide vocational training to students who do not progress beyond Class 8 because they failed the entry qualifications for secondary education. The CTCs offer training in basic carpentry, gardening and farming, sewing and cooking. At the end of their studies the graduates can apply to continue studies either at Motufoua Secondary School or the Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute (TMTI). Adults can also attend courses at the CTCs.[155]

Four tertiary institutions offer technical and vocational courses: Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute (TMTI), Tuvalu Atoll Science Technology Training Institute (TASTII), Australian Pacific Training Coalition (APTC) and University of the South Pacific (USP) Extension Centre.[156]

The Tuvaluan Employment Ordinance of 1966 sets the minimum age for paid employment at 14 years and prohibits children under the age of 15 from performing hazardous work.[157]

Culture

Interior of a maneapa on Funafuti, Tuvalu

Architecture

The traditional buildings of Tuvalu used plants and trees from the native broadleaf forest,[158] including timber from pouka (Hernandia peltata); ngia or ingia bush (Pemphis acidula); miro (Thespesia populnea); Tonga (Rhizophora mucronata); Fau or Fo fafini, or woman's fibre tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus).[158] Fibre is from coconut; ferra, native fig (Ficus aspem); fala, screw pine or Pandanus.[158] The buildings were constructed without nails and were lashed together with a plaited sennit rope that was handmade from dried coconut fibre.[159]

Following contact with Europeans, iron products were used including nails and corrugated roofing material. Modern building in Tuvalu are constructed from imported building materials, including imported timber and concrete.[159]

Church and community buildings (maneapa) are usually coated with white paint that is known as lase, which is made by burning a large amount of dead coral with firewood. The whitish powder that is the result is mixed with water and painted on the buildings.[160]

A Tuvaluan dancer at Auckland's Pasifika Festival

Art of Tuvalu

The women of Tuvalu use cowrie and other shells in traditional handicrafts.[161] The artistic traditions of Tuvalu have traditionally been expressed in the design of clothing and traditional handicrafts such as the decoration of mats and fans.[161] Crochet (kolose) is one of the art forms practised by Tuvaluan women.[162] The material culture of Tuvalu uses traditional design elements in artefacts used in everyday life such as the design of canoes and fish hooks made from traditional materials. The design of women's skirts (titi), tops (teuga saka), headbands, armbands, and wristbands, which continue to be used in performances of the traditional dance songs of Tuvalu, represents contemporary Tuvaluan art and design.[163]

In 2015, an exhibition was held on Funafuti of the art of Tuvalu, with works that addressed climate change through the eyes of artists and the display of Kope ote olaga (possessions of life), a display of the various artefacts of Tuvalu culture.[164]

Dance and music

The traditional music of Tuvalu consists of a number of dances, including fakaseasea, fakanau and fatele.[165] The fatele, in its modern form, is performed at community events and to celebrate leaders and other prominent individuals, such as the visit of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge in September 2012.[166][167] The Tuvaluan style can be described "as a musical microcosm of Polynesia, where contemporary and older styles co-exist".[165]

Cuisine

The cuisine of Tuvalu is based on the staple of coconut and the many species of fish found in the ocean and lagoons of the atolls. Desserts made on the islands include coconut and coconut milk, rather than animal milk. The traditional foods eaten in Tuvalu are pulaka, taro, bananas, breadfruit[168] and coconut.[169] Tuvaluans also eat seafood, including coconut crab and fish from the lagoon and ocean. Another traditional food source is seabirds (taketake or black noddy and akiaki or white tern), with pork being eaten mostly at fateles (or parties with dancing to celebrate events).[117]

Pulaka is the main source for carbohydrates. Seafood provides protein. Bananas and breadfruit are supplemental crops. Coconut is used for its juice, to make other beverages and to improve the taste of some dishes.[117]

A 1560-square-metre pond was built in 1996 on Vaitupu to sustain aquaculture in Tuvalu.[170]

Flying fish are also caught as a source of food;[171] and as an exciting activity, using a boat, a butterfly net and a spotlight to attract the flying fish.[117]

Canoe carving on Nanumea

Heritage

The traditional community system still survives to a large extent on Tuvalu. Each family has its own task, or salanga, to perform for the community, such as fishing, house building or defence. The skills of a family are passed on from parents to children.

Most islands have their own fusi, community-owned shops similar to convenience stores, where canned foods and bags of rice can be purchased. Goods are cheaper, and fusis give better prices for their own produce.[117]

Another important building is the falekaupule or maneapa, the traditional island meeting hall,[172] where important matters are discussed and which is also used for wedding celebrations and community activities such as a fatele involving music, singing and dancing.[117] Falekaupule is also used as the name of the council of elders – the traditional decision-making body on each island. Under the Falekaupule Act, Falekaupule means "traditional assembly in each island...composed in accordance with the Aganu of each island". Aganu means traditional customs and culture.[172]

Traditional single-outrigger canoe

Paopao (from the Samoan language, meaning a small fishing-canoe made from a single log), is the traditional single-outrigger canoe of Tuvalu, of which the largest could carry four to six adults. The variations of single-outrigger canoes that had been developed on Vaitupu and Nanumea were reef-type or paddled canoes; that is, they were designed for carrying over the reef and being paddled, rather than being sailed.[173] Outrigger canoes from Nui were constructed with an indirect type of outrigger attachment and the hull is double-ended, with no distinct bow and stern. These canoes were designed to be sailed over the Nui lagoon.[174] The booms of the outrigger are longer than those found in other designs of canoes from the other islands. This made the Nui canoe more stable when used with a sail than the other designs.[174]

Sport and leisure

A traditional sport played in Tuvalu is kilikiti, which is similar to cricket.[175] A popular sport specific to Tuvalu is Ano, which is played with two round balls of 12 cm (5 in) diameter.[117] Ano is a localised version of volleyball, in which the two hard balls made from pandanus leaves are volleyed at great speed with the team members trying to stop the Ano hitting the ground.[176] Traditional sports in the late 19th century were foot racing, lance throwing, quarterstaff fencing and wrestling, although the Christian missionaries disapproved of these activities.[177]

The popular sports in Tuvalu include kilikiti, Ano, association football, futsal, volleyball, handball, basketball and rugby union. Tuvalu has sports organisations for athletics, badminton, tennis, table tennis, volleyball, football, basketball, rugby union, weightlifting and powerlifting. At the 2013 Pacific Mini Games, Tuau Lapua Lapua won Tuvalu's first gold medal in an international competition in the weightlifting 62 kilogram male snatch. (He also won bronze in the clean and jerk, and obtained the silver medal overall for the combined event.)[178] In 2015, Telupe Iosefa received the first gold medal won by Tuvalu at the Pacific Games in the powerlifting 120 kg male division.[179][180][181]

Football in Tuvalu is played at club and national team level. The Tuvalu national football team trains at the Tuvalu Sports Ground in Funafuti and competes in the Pacific Games. The Tuvalu National Football Association is an associate member of the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) and is seeking membership in FIFA.[182][183] The Tuvalu national futsal team participates in the Oceanian Futsal Championship.

A major sporting event is the "Independence Day Sports Festival" held annually on 1 October. The most important sports event within the country is arguably the Tuvalu Games, which are held yearly since 2008. Tuvalu first participated in the Pacific Games in 1978 and in the Commonwealth Games in 1998, when a weightlifter attended the games held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[184] Two table tennis players attended the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England;[184] Tuvalu entered competitors in shooting, table tennis and weightlifting at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, Australia;[184] three athletes participated in the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India, entering the discus, shot put and weightlifting events;[184] and a team of 3 weightlifters and 2 table tennis players attended the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. Tuvaluan athletes have also participated in the men's and women's 100 metres sprint at the World Championships in Athletics from 2009.

The Tuvalu Association of Sports and National Olympic Committee (TASNOC) was recognised as a National Olympic Committee in July 2007. Tuvalu entered the Olympic Games for the first time at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, China, with a weightlifter and two athletes in the men's and women's 100 metres sprint. A team with athletes in the same events represented Tuvalu at the 2012 Summer Olympics.[185] Etimoni Timuani was the sole representative of Tuvalu at the 2016 Summer Olympics in the 100m event.[186]

Economy and government services

Economy

From 1996 to 2002, Tuvalu was one of the best-performing Pacific Island economies and achieved an average real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 5.6% per annum. Economic growth slowed after 2002, with GDP growth of 1.5% in 2008. Tuvalu was exposed to rapid rises in world prices of fuel and food in 2008, with the level of inflation peaking at 13.4%.[153]

Tuvalu joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on 24 June 2010.[187] The IMP 2010 Report on Tuvalu estimates that Tuvalu experienced zero growth in its 2010 GDP, after the economy contracted by about 2% in 2009.[153] On 5 August 2012, the Executive Board of the IMF concluded the Article IV consultation with Tuvalu, and assessed the economy of Tuvalu: "A slow recovery is underway in Tuvalu, but there are important risks. GDP grew in 2011 for the first time since the global financial crisis, led by the private retail sector and education spending. We expect growth to rise slowly".[188] The IMF 2014 Country Report noted that real GDP growth in Tuvalu had been volatile averaging only 1 percent in the past decade. The 2014 Country Report describes economic growth prospects as generally positive as the result of large revenues from fishing licences, together with substantial foreign aid.[189] While a budget deficit of A$0.4 million was projected for 2015, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) assessed the budget as being A$14.3m in surplus as the result of high tuna fish licence fees. The ADB predicted that the 2% growth rate for 2015 would continue into 2016.[190] Nonetheless, Tuvalu has the smallest GDP of any sovereign nation in the world.[191]

The government is the primary provider of medical services through Princess Margaret Hospital on Funafuti, which operates health clinics on the other islands. Banking services are provided by the National Bank of Tuvalu. Public sector workers make up about 65% of those formally employed. Remittances from Tuvaluans living in Australia and New Zealand, and remittances from Tuvaluan sailors employed on overseas ships are important sources of income for Tuvaluans.[192] Approximately 15% of adult males work as seamen on foreign-flagged merchant ships. Agriculture in Tuvalu is focused on coconut trees and growing pulaka in large pits of composted soil below the water table. Tuvaluans are otherwise involved in traditional subsistence agriculture and fishing.

Tuvaluans are well known for their seafaring skills, with the Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute on Amatuku motu (island), Funafuti, providing training to approximately 120 marine cadets each year so that they have the skills necessary for employment as seafarers on merchant shipping. The Tuvalu Overseas Seamen's Union (TOSU) is the only registered trade union in Tuvalu. It represents workers on foreign ships. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that 800 Tuvaluan men are trained, certified and active as seafarers. The ADB estimates that, at any one time, about 15% of the adult male population works abroad as seafarers.[193] Job opportunities also exist as observers on tuna boats where the role is to monitor compliance with the boat's tuna fishing licence.[194]

Government revenues largely come from sales of fishing licences, income from the Tuvalu Trust Fund, and from the lease of its ".tv" Internet Top Level Domain (TLD). In 1998, Tuvalu began deriving revenue from the use of its area code for premium-rate telephone numbers and from the commercialisation of its ".tv" Internet domain name,[195] which is now managed by Verisign until 2021.[196][197] Tuvalu also generates income from postage stamps by the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau, and from the Tuvalu Ship Registry.

The Tuvalu Trust Fund was established in 1987 by the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. The value of the Tuvalu Trust Fund is approximately $100 million.[153][198] Financial support to Tuvalu is also provided by Japan, South Korea and the European Union. Australia and New Zealand continue to contribute capital to the Tuvalu Trust Fund, and provide other forms of development assistance.[192]

The US government is also a major revenue source for Tuvalu. In 1999, the payment from the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT) was about $9 million, with the value increasing in the following years. In May 2013, representatives from the United States and the Pacific Islands countries agreed to sign interim arrangement documents to extend the Multilateral Fisheries Treaty (which encompasses the South Pacific Tuna Treaty) for 18 months.[199]

The United Nations designates Tuvalu as a least developed country (LDC) because of its limited potential for economic development, absence of exploitable resources and its small size and vulnerability to external economic and environmental shocks.[200] Tuvalu participates in the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries (EIF), which was established in October 1997 under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation.[201] In 2013, Tuvalu deferred its graduation from least developed country (LDC) status to a developing country to 2015. Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga said that this deferral was necessary to maintain access by Tuvalu to the funds provided by the United Nations's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), as "Once Tuvalu graduates to a developed country, it will not be considered for funding assistance for climate change adaptation programmes like NAPA, which only goes to LDCs". Tuvalu had met targets so that Tuvalu was to graduate from LDC status. Prime minister Enele Sopoaga wants the United Nations to reconsider its criteria for graduation from LDC status as not enough weight is given to the environmental plight of small island states like Tuvalu in the application of the Environmental Vulnerability Index (EVI).[202]

Tourism

Funafuti lagoon (Te Namo)

Due to the country's remoteness, tourism is not significant. Visitors totalled 1,684 in 2010: 65% were on business, development officials or technical consultants, 20% were tourists (360 people), and 11% were expatriates returning to visit family.[203] In 2016, the number of visitors had increased to 2,000.[204]

The main island of Funafuti is the focus of travellers, since the only airport in Tuvalu is the Funafuti International Airport and Funafuti is the only island that has hotel facilities.[205] However, there are no tour guides, tour operators or organised activities and no cruise ships visit.[206] Ecotourism is a motivation of travellers to Tuvalu. The Funafuti Conservation Area consists of 12.74 square miles (33.00 square kilometres) of ocean, reef, lagoon, channel and six uninhabited islets.

The outer atolls can be visited on the two passenger-cargo ships, Nivaga III and Manú Folau, which provide round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks. There is guesthouse accommodation on many of the outer islands.

Telecommunications and media

The Tuvalu Media Department of the Government of Tuvalu operates Radio Tuvalu which broadcasts from Funafuti.[207] In 2011, the Japanese government provided financial support to construct a new AM broadcast studio. The installation of upgraded transmission equipment allows Radio Tuvalu to be heard on all nine islands of Tuvalu. The new AM radio transmitter on Funafuti replaced the FM radio service to the outer islands and freed up satellite bandwidth for mobile services.[203] Fenui – news from Tuvalu is a free digital publication of the Tuvalu Media Department that is emailed to subscribers and operates a Facebook page, which publishes news about government activities and news about Tuvaluan events.

On 28 September 2020, the first private newspaper to operate in the country – Tuvalu Paradise News - was launched. The Chief Executive Officer and owner of KMT News Corporation (the publisher) and editor of the print newspaper and website, is the Rev. Dr. Kitiona Tausi.[208]

The Tuvalu Telecommunications Corporation (TTC), a state-owned enterprise, provides fixed line telephone communications to subscribers on each island, mobile phone services on Funafuti, Vaitupu and Nukulaelae and is a distributor of the Fiji Television service (Sky Pacific satellite television service).[203]

Communications in Tuvalu rely on satellite dishes for telephone and internet access. The available bandwidth is only 512 kbit/s uplink, and 1.5 Mbit/s downlink. Throughout Tuvalu are more than 900 subscribers who want to use the satellite service, with demand slowing down the speed of the system.[209]

Transport

Manu Folau off Vaitupu atoll (2006)

There are limited transport services in Tuvalu. There are about eight kilometres (5 miles) of roads.[122] The streets of Funafuti were paved in mid-2002, but other roads are unpaved. Tuvalu does not have any railroads.

Funafuti is the only port, but there is a deep-water berth in the lagoon at Nukufetau. The merchant marine fleet consists of two passenger/cargo ships Nivaga III and Manu Folau. The Nivaga III and Manu Folau provide round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks, and travel between Suva, Fiji and Funafuti three or four times a year. The Manu Folau, a 50-metre vessel, was a gift from Japan to the people of Tuvalu. In 2015, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) assisted the government of Tuvalu to acquire MV Talamoana, a 30-metre vessel that will be used to implement Tuvalu's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to transport government officials and project personnel to the outer islands.[210] In 2015, the Nivaga III was donated by the government of Japan; it replaced the Nivaga II, which had been in service in Tuvalu from 1989.[211][212]

The only airport in Tuvalu is Funafuti International Airport. It is a tarred strip. Fiji Airways, the owner of Fiji Airlines (trading as Fiji Link) operates services three times a week (Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday) between Suva (originating from Nadi) and Funafuti with ATR 72–600, a 68-seat plane. Air Kiribati service provides one flight a week to Funafuti from Tarawa on a Wednesday. The service uses a Bombardier Dash 8 100 series aircraft, which has the capacity to take up to 35 passengers.[213]

Geography and environment

Geography

A beach at Funafuti atoll.

Tuvalu is a volcanic archipelago, and consists of three reef islands (Nanumanga, Niutao and Niulakita) and six true atolls (Funafuti, Nanumea, Nui, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and Vaitupu).[214] Its small, scattered group of low-lying atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 square kilometres (10 square miles) making it the fourth smallest country in the world. The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level on Niulakita. Over four decades, there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes are not uniform, with 74% increasing and 27% decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.[215] The rising sea levels are identified as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across reef surfaces, which shifts sand, resulting in accretion to island shorelines.[214] The Tuvalu Prime Minister objected to the report's implication that there were "alternate" strategies for Islanders to adapt to rising sea levels, and criticised it for neglecting issues such as saltwater intrusion into groundwater tables as a result of sea level rise.[216]

Funafuti is the largest atoll, and comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25.1 kilometres (15.6 miles) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 miles) (W-E), centred on 179°7'E and 8°30'S. On the atolls, an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with several natural reef channels.[217] Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of the reef habitats of Nanumea, Nukulaelae and Funafuti; a total of 317 fish species were recorded during this Tuvalu Marine Life study. The surveys identified 66 species that had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu, which brings the total number of identified species to 607.[218][219] Tuvalu's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) covers an oceanic area of approximately 900,000 km2.[220]

Tuvalu is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity.[221] The predominant vegetation type on the islands of Tuvalu is the cultivated coconut woodland, which covers 43% of the land, the native broadleaf forest is limited to 4.1% of the vegetation types.[222] Tuvalu contains the Western Polynesian tropical moist forests terrestrial ecoregion.[223]

Climate

Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons, a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October.[224] Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominant weather conditions from October to March, the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo, with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November.

Tuvalu experiences the effects of El Niño and La Niña, which is caused by changes in ocean temperatures in the equatorial and central Pacific. El Niño effects increase the chances of tropical storms and cyclones, while La Niña effects increase the chances of drought. Typically the islands of Tuvalu receive between 200 to 400 mm (8 to 16 in) of rainfall per month. The central Pacific Ocean experiences changes from periods of La Niña to periods of El Niño.[225]

Climate data for Tuvalu
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 31
(87)
30
(86)
30
(86)
31
(87)
31
(87)
30
(86)
30
(86)
30
(86)
30
(86)
31
(87)
31
(87)
31
(87)
30.3
(86.5)
Average low °C (°F) 27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
28
(82)
27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
27
(81)
26.9
(80.5)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 390
(15.3)
350
(13.9)
310
(12.4)
250
(10)
240
(9.3)
240
(9.3)
260
(10.4)
250
(9.8)
230
(9.1)
270
(10.5)
280
(10.9)
390
(15.5)
3,500
(137.7)
Source: Weatherbase[226]

Environmental pressures

A wharf and beach at Funafuti atoll

The eastern shoreline of Funafuti Lagoon on Fongafale was modified during World War II when the airfield (now Funafuti International Airport) was constructed. The coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create the runway. The resulting borrow pits impacted the fresh-water aquifer. In the low-lying areas of Funafuti, the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools with each high tide.[227][228] In 2014, the Tuvalu Borrow Pits Remediation (BPR) project was approved so that 10 borrow pits would be filled with sand from the lagoon, leaving Tafua Pond, which is a natural pond. The New Zealand Government funded the BPR project.[229] The project was carried out in 2015, with 365,000 sqm of sand being dredged from the lagoon to fill the holes and improve living conditions on the island. This project increased the usable land space on Fongafale by eight per cent.[230]

During World War II, several piers were also constructed on Fongafale in the Funafuti Lagoon; beach areas were filled and deep-water access channels were excavated. These alterations to the reef and shoreline resulted in changes to wave patterns, with less sand accumulating to form the beaches, compared to former times; the shoreline is now exposed to wave action. Several attempts to stabilise the shoreline have not achieved the desired effect.[231]

The reefs at Funafuti have suffered damage, with 80 percent of the coral becoming bleached as a consequence of the increase in ocean temperatures and ocean acidification.[232] The coral bleaching, which includes staghorn corals, is attributed to the increase in water temperature that happened during the El Niños that occurred between 1998 and 2001.[233] A reef restoration project has investigated reef restoration techniques;[234] and researchers from Japan have investigated rebuilding the coral reefs through the introduction of foraminifera.[235] The project of the Japan International Cooperation Agency is designed to increase the resilience of the Tuvalu coast against sea level rise, through ecosystem rehabilitation and regeneration and through support for sand production.[236]

The rising population has resulted in an increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress,[232] although the creation of the Funafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area to help sustain the fish population across the Funafuti lagoon. Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti, and inadequate sanitation systems, have resulted in pollution.[237][238] The Waste Operations and Services Act of 2009 provides the legal framework for waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union directed at organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.[239] The Environment Protection (Litter and Waste Control) Regulation 2013 is intended to improve the management of the importation of non-biodegradable materials. Plastic waste is a problem in Tuvalu, for much imported food and other commodities are supplied in plastic containers or packaging.

Water and sanitation

Rainwater harvesting is the principal source of fresh water in Tuvalu. Nukufetau, Vaitupu and Nanumea are the only islands with sustainable groundwater supplies. The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting is diminished because of poor maintenance of roofs, gutters and pipes.[203][240] Aid programmes of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.[241]

Reverse osmosis (R/O) desalination units supplement rainwater harvesting on Funafuti. The 65 m3 desalination plant operates at a real production level of around 40 m3 per day. R/O water is only intended to be produced when storage falls below 30%, however demand to replenish household storage supplies with tanker-delivered water means that the R/O desalination units are continually operating. Water is delivered at a cost of A$3.50 per m3. Cost of production and delivery has been estimated at A$6 per m3, with the difference subsidised by the government.[203]

In July 2012, a United Nations Special Rapporteur called on the Tuvalu Government to develop a national water strategy to improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation.[242][243] In 2012, Tuvalu developed a National Water Resources Policy under the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Project and the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Project, which are sponsored by the Global Environment Fund/SOPAC. Government water planning has established a target of between 50 and 100L of water per person per day accounting for drinking water, cleaning, community and cultural activities.[203]

Tuvalu is working with the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) to implement composting toilets and to improve the treatment of sewage sludge from septic tanks on Fongafale, for septic tanks are leaking into the freshwater lens in the sub-surface of the atoll as well as the ocean and lagoon. Composting toilets reduce water use by up to 30%.[203]

Cyclones and king tides

Cyclones

Ocean side of Funafuti atoll showing the storm dunes, the highest point on the atoll.

Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this nation are vulnerable to the effects of tropical cyclones and by the threat of current and future sea level rise.[237][244][245] A warning system, which uses the Iridium satellite network, was introduced in 2016 in order to allow outlying islands to be better prepared for natural disasters.[246]

The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level on Niulakita,[247] Tuvalu thus has the second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after the Maldives). The highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to overtopping in tropical cyclones, as occurred with Cyclone Bebe, which was a very early-season storm that passed through the Tuvaluan atolls in October 1972.[248] Cyclone Bebe submerged Funafuti, eliminating 90% of structures on the island. Sources of drinking water were contaminated as a result of the system's storm surge and the flooding of the sources of fresh water.

George Westbrook, a trader on Funafuti, recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti on 23–24 December 1883.[249][250] A cyclone struck Nukulaelae on 17–18 March 1886.[249] A cyclone caused severe damage to the islands in 1894.[251]

Tuvalu experienced an average of three cyclones per decade between the 1940s and 1970s; however, eight occurred in the 1980s.[252] The impact of individual cyclones is subject to variables including the force of the winds and also whether a cyclone coincides with high tides.[253] Funafuti's Tepuka Vili Vili islet was devastated by Cyclone Meli in 1979, with all its vegetation and most of its sand swept away during the cyclone. Along with a tropical depression that affected the islands a few days later, Severe Tropical Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on Tuvalu with most islands reporting damage to vegetation and crops.[254][255] Cyclone Gavin was first identified during 2 March 1997, and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996–97 cyclone season, with Cyclones Hina and Keli following later in the season.

In March 2015, the winds and storm surge created by Cyclone Pam resulted in waves of 3 metres (9.8 ft) to 5 metres (16 ft) breaking over the reef of the outer islands, causing damage to houses, crops and infrastructure.[256][257] A state of emergency was declared. On Nui, the sources of fresh water were destroyed or contaminated.[258][259][260] The flooding in Nui and Nukufetau caused many families to shelter in evacuation centres or with other families.[261] Nui suffered the most damage of the three central islands (Nui, Nukufetau and Vaitupu);[262] with both Nui and Nukufetau suffering the loss of 90% of the crops.[263] Of the three northern islands (Nanumanga, Niutao and Nanumea), Nanumanga suffered the most damage, with from 60 to 100 houses flooded, with the waves also causing damage to the health facility.[263] Vasafua islet, part of the Funafuti Conservation Area, was severely damaged by Cyclone Pam. The coconut palms were washed away, leaving the islet as a sand bar.[264][265]

The Tuvalu Government carried out assessments of the damage caused by Cyclone Pam to the islands and has provided medical aid, food as well as assistance for the cleaning-up of storm debris. Government and Non-Government Organisations provided assistance technical, funding and material support to Tuvalu to assist with recovery, including WHO, UNICEF, UNDP, OCHA, World Bank, DFAT, New Zealand Red Cross & IFRC, Fiji National University and governments of New Zealand, Netherlands, UAE, Taiwan and the United States.[266]

King tides

Tuvalu is also affected by perigean spring tide events which raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.[267] The highest peak tide recorded by the Tuvalu Meteorological Service is 3.4 metres (11 ft), on 24 February 2006 and again on 19 February 2015.[268] As a result of the historical sea level rise, the king tide events lead to flooding of low-lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by La Niña effects or local storms and waves.[269]

Impact of climate change

Challenges Tuvalu faces as a result of climate change

As low-lying islands lacking a surrounding shallow shelf, the communities of Tuvalu are especially susceptible to changes in sea level and undissipated storms.[270][271][272] At its highest, Tuvalu is only 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Tuvaluan leaders have been concerned about the effects of rising sea levels.[273] It is estimated that a sea level rise of 20–40 centimetres (8–16 inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.[274][275] A study published in 2018 estimated the change in land area of Tuvalu's nine atolls and 101 reef islands between 1971 and 2014, indicating that 75% of the islands had grown in area, with an overall increase of more than 2%.[276] Enele Sopoaga, the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, responded to the research by stating that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land.[277][278] Sopoaga, has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.[279]

Whether there are measurable changes in the sea level relative to the islands of Tuvalu is a contentious issue.[280][281] There were problems associated with the pre-1993 sea level records from Funafuti which resulted in improvements in the recording technology to provide more reliable data for analysis.[275] The degree of uncertainty as to estimates of sea level change relative to the islands of Tuvalu was reflected in the conclusions made in 2002 from the available data.[275] The uncertainty as to the accuracy of the data from this tide gauge resulted in a modern Aquatrak acoustic gauge being installed in 1993 by the Australian National Tidal Facility (NTF) as part of the AusAID-sponsored South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project.[282] The 2011 report of the Pacific Climate Change Science Program published by the Australian Government,[283] concludes: "The sea-level rise near Tuvalu measured by satellite altimeters since 1993 is about 5 mm (0.2 in) per year."[284]

Tuvalu has adopted a national plan of action as the observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea levels.[285] These include sea water bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools at high tide and the flooding of low-lying areas including the airport during spring tides and king tides.[227][228][286][287][288]

The atolls have shown resilience to gradual sea-level rise, with atolls and reef islands being able to grow under current climate conditions by generating sufficient sand and coral debris that accumulates and gets dumped on the islands during cyclones.[289][290][291][292][293] Gradual sea-level rise also allows for coral polyp activity to increase the reefs. However, if the increase in sea level occurs at faster rate as compared to coral growth,[294] or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain.[295] The 2011 report of Pacific Climate Change Science Program of Australia concludes, in relation to Tuvalu,[224] that over the course of the 21st century:

  • Surface air temperatures and sea‑surface temperatures are projected to continually increase (very high confidence).[284]
  • Annual and seasonal mean rainfalls are projected to increase (high confidence).[284]
  • The intensity and frequency of extreme heat days are projected to increase (very high confidence).[284]
  • The intensity and frequency of extreme rainfall days are projected to increase (high confidence).[284]
  • The incidence of drought is projected to decrease (moderate confidence).[284]
  • Tropical cyclone numbers are projected to decline in the south-east Pacific Ocean basin (0–40ºS, 170ºE–130ºW) (moderate confidence).[284]
  • Ocean acidification is projected to continue (very high confidence).[284]
  • Mean sea-level rise is projected to continue (very high confidence).[284]

The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) suggests that, while Tuvalu is vulnerable to climate change, environmental problems such as population growth and poor coastal management also affect sustainable development. SOPAC ranks the country as extremely vulnerable using the Environmental Vulnerability Index.

While some commentators have called for the relocation of Tuvalu's population to Australia, New Zealand or Kioa in Fiji,[296] in 2006 Maatia Toafa (Prime Minister from 2004 to 2006) said his government did not regard rising sea levels as such a threat that the entire population would need to be evacuated.[297] In 2013, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga said that relocating Tuvaluans to avoid the impact of sea level rise "should never be an option because it is self defeating in itself. For Tuvalu I think we really need to mobilise public opinion in the Pacific as well as in the [rest of] world to really talk to their lawmakers to please have some sort of moral obligation and things like that to do the right thing."[298]

Women from Tuvalu, such as Moira Simmons-Avafoa, along with others from Pacific countries have been encouraged to use their voices to contribute to discussion about climate change – in particular how it disproportionately affects women and children.[299]

2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21)

Enele Sopoaga said at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) that the goal for COP21 should be a global temperature goal of below 1.5 degrees Celsius relative to pre-industrial levels, which is the position of the Alliance of Small Island States.[300] Sopoaga said in his speech to the meeting of heads of state and government:

Tuvalu's future at current warming, is already bleak, any further temperature increase will spell the total demise of Tuvalu ... For Small Island Developing States, Least Developed Countries and many others, setting a global temperature goal of below 1.5 degrees Celsius relative to pre-industrial levels is critical. I call on the people of Europe to think carefully about their obsession with 2 degrees. Surely, we must aim for the best future we can deliver and not a weak compromise.[301]

His speech concluded with the plea:

Let's do it for Tuvalu. For if we save Tuvalu we save the world.[301]

The countries participating in the Paris Agreement agreed to reduce their carbon output "as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming "to well below 2 °C".[302] Enele Sopoaga described the important outcomes of COP21 as including the stand-alone provision for assistance to small island states and some of the least developed countries for loss and damage resulting from climate change and the ambition of limiting temperature rise to 1.5 degrees by the end of the century.[303]

Filmography and bibliography

Filmography

Documentary films about Tuvalu:

  • Tu Toko Tasi (Stand by Yourself) (2000) Conrad Mill, a Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) production.[304]
  • Paradise Domain – Tuvalu (Director: Joost De Haas, Bullfrog Films/TVE 2001) 25:52 minutes – YouTube video.[227]
  • Tuvalu island tales (A Tale of two Islands) (Director: Michel Lippitsch) 34 minutes – YouTube video.
  • The Disappearing of Tuvalu: Trouble in Paradise (2004) by Christopher Horner and Gilliane Le Gallic.[305]
  • Paradise Drowned: Tuvalu, the Disappearing Nation (2004) Written and produced by Wayne Tourell. Directed by Mike O'Connor, Savana Jones-Middleton and Wayne Tourell.[306]
  • Going Under (2004) by Franny Armstrong, Spanner Films.[227]
  • Before the Flood: Tuvalu (2005) by Paul Lindsay (Storyville/BBC Four).[227]
  • Time and Tide (2005) by Julie Bayer and Josh Salzman, Wavecrest Films.[307]
  • Tuvalu: That Sinking Feeling (2005) by Elizabeth Pollock from PBS Rough Cut
  • Atlantis Approaching (2006) by Elizabeth Pollock, Blue Marble Productions.[308]
  • King Tide | The Sinking of Tuvalu (2007) by Juriaan Booij.[309]
  • Tuvalu (Director: Aaron Smith, ‘Hungry Beast’ program, ABC June 2011) 6:40 minutes – YouTube video.
  • Tuvalu: Renewable Energy in the Pacific Islands Series (2012) a production of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and SPREP 10 minutes – YouTube video.
  • Mission Tuvalu (Missie Tuvalu) (2013) feature documentary directed by Jeroen van den Kroonenberg.[310]
  • ThuleTuvalu (2014) by Matthias von Gunten, HesseGreutert Film/OdysseyFilm.[311]
  • Traveling to the Least Visited Country in the World (2019) by Yes Theory – YouTube video.
Bibliography

See also

References

  1. "2010 Report on International Religious Freedom – Tuvalu", United States Department of State
  2. "Population by sex, annual rate of population increase, surface area and density" (PDF). United Nations. 2012.
  3. "Tuvalu". International Monetary Fund.
  4. "Maps of Tuvalu". Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  5. "Population of communities in Tuvalu". Thomas Brinkhoff. 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  6. Howe, Kerry (2003). The Quest for Origins. New Zealand: Penguin. pp. 68–70. ISBN 0-14-301857-4.
  7. Bellwood, Peter (1987). The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People. Thames and Hudson. pp. 39–44.
  8. Bellwood, Peter (1987). The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People. Thames and Hudson. pp. 29 & 54.
  9. Bayard, D.T. (1976). The Cultural Relationships of the Polynesian Outliers. Otago University, Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology, Vol. 9.
  10. Kirch, P.V. (1984). The Polynesian Outliers. 95 (4) Journal of Pacific History. pp. 224–238.
  11. "Declaration between the Governments of Great Britain and the German Empire relating to the Demarcation of the British and German Spheres of Influence in the Western Pacific, signed at Berlin, April 6, 1886". 1886. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  12. W. David McIntyre. "The Partition of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands" (PDF). Island Studies Journal, Vol. 7, No.1, 2012. pp. 135–146. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  13. Howe, Kerry (2003). The Quest for Origins. New Zealand: Penguin. pp. 68, 70. ISBN 0-14-301857-4.
  14. Resture, Jane (June 2007). "Tuvalu Mythology: The Story of the Eel and the Flounder". Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  15. Sogivalu, Pulekau A. (1992). A Brief History of Niutao. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. ISBN 982-02-0058-X.
  16. O'Brien, Talakatoa in Tuvalu: A History, Chapter 1, Genesis
  17. Kennedy, Donald G. (1929). "Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 38: 2–5.
  18. Stanton, William (1975). The Great United States Exploring Expedition. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 240. ISBN 0520025571.
  19. Maude, H.E. "Spanish discoveries in the Central Pacific. A study in identification", in Journal of the Polynesian Society, Wellington, LXVIII, (1959), pp.299,303.
  20. Maude, H.E. (1959). "Spanish Discoveries in the Central Pacific: A Study in Identification". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 68 (4): 284–326.
  21. Chambers, Keith S. & Munro, Doug (1980). "The Mystery of Gran Cocal: European Discovery and Mis-Discovery in Tuvalu". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 89 (2): 167–198.
  22. "Circumnavigation: Notable global maritime circumnavigations". Solarnavigator.net. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
  23. Kofe, Laumua; Palagi and Pastors in Tuvalu: A History, Ch. 15
  24. De Peyster, J. Watts (John Watts); De Peyster, Arent Schuyler (6 December 1800). "Military (1776–'79) transactions of Major, afterwards Colonel, 8th or King's foot, Arent Schuyler de Peyster... [microform]". [S.l. : s.n. via Internet Archive.
  25. The De Peysters. corbett-family-history.com
  26. Maude, H.E. (November 1986). "Post-Spanish Discoveries in the Central Pacific". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 70 (1): 67–111.
  27. A Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean: With Description of Its Coasts, Islands, Etc. from the Strait of Magalhaens to the Arctic Sea (1851)
  28. Doug Munro and Keith S. Chambers (1989). "Duperrey and the Discovery of Nanumaga in 1824: an episode in Pacific exploration". Great Circle. 11: 37–43.
  29. "Pieter Troost: Aanteekeningen gehouden op eene reis om de wereld: met het fregat de Maria Reigersberg en de ...". 1829. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
  30. Simati Faanin, Hugh Laracy (ed.) (1983). "Chapter 16 – Travellers and Workers". Tuvalu: A History. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu. p. 122.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  31. Maude, H.E. (1981) Slavers in Paradise, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804711062.
  32. Murray A.W. (1876). Forty Years' Mission Work. London: Nisbet
  33. Newton, W.F. (1967). "The Early Population of the Ellice Islands". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 76 (2): 197–204.
  34. Bedford, Richard; Macdonald, Barrie & Munro, Doug (1980). "Population Estimates for Kiribati and Tuvalu". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 89 (1): 199.
  35. Goldsmith, Michael & Munro, Doug (2002). The accidental missionary: tales of Elekana. Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury. ISBN 1877175331.
  36. Munro, D. (1996). "Samoan Pastors in Tuvalu, 1865–1899". In D. Munro & A. Thornley (ed.). The Covenant Makers: Islander Missionaries in the Pacific. Suva, Fiji, Pacific Theological College and the University of the South Pacific. pp. 124–157. ISBN 9820201268.
  37. Noatia P. Teo, Hugh Larcy (ed) (1983). "Chapter 17, Colonial Rule". Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 127–139.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  38. A. Grove Day (1967). Louis Becke. Melbourne: Hill of Content. pp. 30–34.
  39. A. Grove Day (1967). Louis Becke. Melbourne: Hill of Content. p. 35.
  40. O'Neill, Sally (1980). "Becke, George Lewis (Louis) (1855–1913)". Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
  41. Mitchener, James A. (1957). "Louis Beck, Adventurer and Writer". Rascals in Paradise. Secker & Warburg.
  42. Resture, Jane. "TUVALU HISTORY – The Davis Diaries (H.M.S. Royalist, 1892 visit to Ellice Islands under Captain Davis)". Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  43. Mahaffy, Arthur (1910). "(CO 225/86/26804)". Report by Mr. Arthur Mahaffy on a visit to the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Great Britain, Colonial Office, High Commission for Western Pacific Islands (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office).
  44. Munro, Doug (1987). "The Lives and Times of Resident Traders in Tuvalu: An Exercise in History from Below". Pacific Studies. 10 (2): 73.
  45. Resture, Jane. "From Restieaux to Resture". Retrieved 4 November 2012.
  46. Resture, Jane. "The Alfred Restieaux Manuscript Part II". Retrieved 6 August 2011.
  47. "Christian Martin Kleis" (PDF). TPB 02/2012 Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau. 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  48. Tyler, David B. – 1968 The Wilkes Expedition. The First United States Exploring Expedition (1838–42). Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society
  49. Wilkes, Charles. "2". Ellice's and Kingsmill's Group. 5. The First United States Exploring Expedition (1838–42) Smithsonian Institution. pp. 35–75.
  50. Andrew, Thomas (1886). "Washing Hole Funafuti. From the album: Views in the Pacific Islands". Collection of Museum of New Zealand (Te Papa). Retrieved 10 April 2014.
  51. Andrew, Thomas (1886). "Mission House Nui. From the album: Views in the Pacific Islands". Collection of Museum of New Zealand (Te Papa). Retrieved 10 April 2014.
  52. Andrew, Thomas (1886). "Bread fruit tree Nui. From the album: Views in the Pacific Islands". Collection of Museum of New Zealand (Te Papa). Retrieved 10 April 2014.
  53. The Circular Saw Shipping Line. Archived 9 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Anthony G. Flude. 1993. (Chapter 7)
  54. Janet Nicoll is the correct spelling of the trading steamer owned by Henderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New Zealand, which operated between Sydney, Auckland and into the central Pacific. Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson misnames the ship as the Janet Nicol in her account of the 1890 voyage
  55. Resture, Jane. "The Tuvalu Visit of Robert Louis Stevenson". Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  56. Stevenson, Fanny Van de Grift (1914) The Cruise of the Janet Nichol among the South Sea Islands, republished in 2003, Roslyn Jolly (ed.), U. of Washington Press/U. of New South Wales Press, ISBN 0868406066
  57. Festetics De Tolna, Comte Rodolphe (1903) Chez les cannibales: huit ans de croisière dans l'océan Pacifique à bord du, Paris: Plon-Nourrit
  58. "The Aristocrat and His Cannibals" Count Festetics von Tolna's travels in Oceania, 1893–1896. musée du quai Branly. 2007.
  59. "Néprajzi Múzeum Könyvtára". The library of the Ethnographic Museum of Hungary. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  60. Lal, Andrick. South Pacific Sea Level & Climate Monitoring Project – Funafuti atoll (PDF). SPC Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC Division of SPC). pp. 35 & 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2014.
  61. "TO THE EDITOR OF THE HERALD". The Sydney Morning Herald. National Library of Australia. 11 September 1934. p. 6. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
  62. David, Mrs Edgeworth, Funafuti or Three Months on a Coral Atoll: an unscientific account of a scientific expedition, London: John Murray, 1899
  63. "Photography Collection". University of Sydney Library. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  64. Hedley
  65. Hedley, Charles (1897). "The ethnology of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (4): 227–304. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1967.3.1897.497.
  66. Fairfax, Denis (1983) "Hedley, Charles (1862–1926)", pp. 252–253 in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 9, Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 5 May 2013
  67. Serle, Percival (1949). "Hedley, Charles". Dictionary of Australian Biography. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. Retrieved 5 May 2013.
  68. Waite, Edgar R. (1897). "The mammals, reptiles, and fishes of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (3): 165–202. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1967.3.1897.494.
  69. Rainbow, William J. (1897). "The insect fauna of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (1): 89–104. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1967.3.1897.490.
  70. "National Archives & Records Administration". Records of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  71. "Tuvalu (Ellice Islands)". Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  72. McQuarrie, Peter (1994). Strategic atolls: Tuvalu and the Second World War. Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury/ Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. ISBN 0958330050.
  73. Lifuka, Neli; edited and introduced by Klaus-Friedrich Koch (1978). "War Years in Funafuti" (PDF). Logs in the current of the sea: Neli Lifuka's story of Kioa and the Vaitupu colonists. Australian National University Press/Press of the Langdon Associates. ISBN 0708103626.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. Melei Telavi, Hugh Larcy (ed) (1983). "Chapter 18, War". Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 140–144.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  75. "Tuvalu (Ellice Islands) Airfields & Seaplane Anchorages". Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  76. "Nanumea Airfield". Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  77. "Motulalo Airfield (Nukufetau Airfield)". Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  78. Barbin, Harold L. (2010). Beachheads Secured Volume II, The History of Patrol Torpedo (PT) Boats, Their Bases, and Tenders of World War II, June 1939 – 31 August 1945. pp. 549–550.
  79. "To the Central Pacific and Tarawa, August 1943—Background to GALVANIC (Ch 16, p. 622)". 1969. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
  80. Enele Sapoaga, Hugh Larcy (ed) (1983). "Chapter 19, Post-War Development". Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 146–152.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  81. Goldsmith, Michael (2012). "The Colonial and Postcolonial Roots of Ethnonationalism in Tuvalu". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 121 (2): 129–150. doi:10.15286/jps.121.2.129-150. JSTOR 41705922.
  82. General election, 1974: report / Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Tarawa: Central Government Office. 1974.
  83. Nohlen, D, Grotz, F & Hartmann, C (2001) Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume II, p831 ISBN 0-19-924959-8
  84. Tito Isala, Hugh Larcy (ed) (1983). "Chapter 20, Secession and Independence". Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. p. 169.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  85. McIntyre, W. David (2012). "The Partition of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands" (PDF). Island Studies Journal. 7 (1): 135–146.
  86. "Palamene o Tuvalu (Parliament of Tuvalu)" (PDF). Inter-Parliamentary Union. 1981. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
  87. Tito Isaala, Hugh Larcy (ed) (1983). "Chapter 20, Secession and Independence". Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 153–177.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  88. Cabinet, Department of the Premier and (1 July 2019). "Independence Day - Tuvalu". Government of South Australia, Department of the Premier and Cabinet. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
  89. "PACLII". The Constitution of Tuvalu. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
  90. "Tuvalu National Archives major project", British Library
  91. "Tuvalu National Human Rights Action Plan 2016–2020". Attorney General's Office of Tuvalu and the Pacific Community (SPC). 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  92. "Te Kakeega III – National Strategy for Sustainable Development-2016-2020" (PDF). Government of Tuvalu. 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  93. Corrin-Care, Jennifer; Newton, Tess & Paterson, Don (1999). Introduction to South Pacific Law. London: Cavendish Publishing Ltd.
  94. "PACLII". Tuvalu Courts System Information. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
  95. Kofe, Susie Saitala; Taomia, Fakavae (2007). "Advancing Women's Political Participation in Tuvalu: A Research Project Commissioned by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS)" (PDF).
  96. "Pacific Aviation Investment Program (PAIP) Environmental Management Plan – Funafuti International Airport(FUN) and Road Interim Working Document" (PDF). AECOM. 13 November 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
  97. Black, Richard (9 December 2009). "Developing countries split over climate measures". BBC News. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
  98. "Majuro Declaration: For Climate Leadership". Pacific Islands Forum. 5 September 2013. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
  99. "SPREC". Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme. 2009. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
  100. "FORMERLY DISPUTED ISLANDS". U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.
  101. "Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency". Retrieved 11 October 2010.
  102. "The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC)". Retrieved 29 March 2012.
  103. "South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT)". 1988. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  104. "Pacific Islands and the US settle tuna deal". FIS Australia. 9 October 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  105. "Tuvalu refuses to sell fishing days". The Fijian Times Online (PNA/PACNEWS). 13 June 2015. Archived from the original on 7 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
  106. "TWCPFC13: Don't forget Article 30- Tuvalu reminds Tuna Commission of 'disproportionate burden' for SIDS". Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA). 5 December 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  107. The Secretary General (19 July 2013). "Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu Sign the MOU to establish Trade and Development Facility". Press Statement 40/13, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat. Archived from the original on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
  108. "Enhanced High Level Political Dialogue between Tuvalu and the European Union". European Union. 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  109. The Secretary General (18 February 2016). "Tuvalu signs PIDF Charter and formally joins PIDF". Pacific Islands Development Forum. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
  110. "Tuvalu to sign regional trade deal". Radio NZ. 1 June 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
  111. "PACER-Plus Regional Trade Agreement Signed in Tonga Ceremony". Pacific Islands Report/Radio NZ. 14 June 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
  112. "Tuvalu country brief". Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
  113. Christopher Pyne (7 April 2019). "Guardian Class Patrol Boat gifted to Tuvalu". Australian Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 7 April 2019. Te Mataili II was received by the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, the Right Hon Enele Sosene Sopoaga at a handover ceremony attended by the Minister for Foreign Affairs, Trade, Tourism, Environment and Labour, the Hon Taukelina Finikaso, the Minister for Natural Resources, the Hon Dr Puakena Boreham, and the Commissioner of the Tuvalu Police Service, Commissioner Luka Falefou.
  114. "Australia hands over Guardian-class patrol boat to Tuvalu". Naval Today. 6 April 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2019. The 39.5 meter steel hulled patrol boat was built by Australian shipbuilder Austal under an AUD 335 million program that will see 21 boats gifted to 12 Pacific Island countries and Timor-Leste.
  115. "Cooks bill puts spotlight on Pacific's anti-gay laws". RNZ News. 21 August 2017.
  116. "Falekaupule Act (1997)". PACLII. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  117. Bennetts, Peter; Wheeler, Tony (2001). Time & Tide: The Islands of Tuvalu. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-86450-342-4.
  118. "Census of Population and Housing and sample Surveys". Central Statistics Division – Government of Tuvalu. 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
  119. "Population of communities in Tuvalu". world-statistics.org. 11 April 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  120. "Population of communities in Tuvalu". Thomas Brinkhoff. 11 April 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  121. "Population, total". The World Bank. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  122. "The World Factbook (CIA)". 20 October 2019. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  123. Colette Mortreux & Jon Barnett (2009). "Climate change, migration and adaptation in Funafuti, Tuvalu". Global Environmental Change. 19: 105–112. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.09.006.
  124. Lifuka, Neli (1978). Koch, Klaus-Friedrich (ed.). Logs in the current of the sea: Neli Lifuka's story of Kioa and the Vaitupu colonists. Australian National University Press/Press of the Langdon Associates. ISBN 0708103626.
  125. Rick, Noack (7 August 2014). "Has the era of the 'climate change refugee' begun?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
  126. Rive, Vernon (14 August 2014). ""Climate refugees" revisited: a closer look at the Tuvalu decision". Point Source. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  127. Rive, Vernon (14 August 2014). ""Climate refugees" revisited: a closer look at the Tuvalu decision". Point Source. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
  128. Ben Doherty and Eleanor Ainge Roy (8 May 2017). "World Bank: let climate-threatened Pacific islanders migrate to Australia or NZ". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
  129. "Government announces Pacific access scheme". Mark Gosche, Pacific Island Affairs Minister (NZ). 20 December 2001. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  130. "Pacific Access Category". Immigration New Zealand. 20 December 2001. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  131. "Tuvalu – Decent work country program" (PDF). International Labour Organization. 11 May 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
  132. "The Seasonal Worker Program". Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (Australia). 1 July 2012. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
  133. "Tuvaluan (Te 'gana Tūvalu)". Omniglot. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
  134. "Tuvalu". Ethnologue.
  135. Besnier, Niko (2000). Tuvaluan: A Polynesian Language of the Central Pacific. London: Routledge, ISBN 0-203-02712-4.
  136. Jackson, Geoff and Jackson, Jenny (1999). An introduction to Tuvaluan. Suva: Oceania Printers, ISBN 982-9027-02-3.
  137. "Tuvalu". religiousfreedom.com.
  138. "2010 Report on International Religious Freedom – Tuvalu". United States Department of State. 17 November 2010. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
  139. "Address data base of Reformed churches and institutions". reformiert-online.net.
  140. Constitution of Tuvalu, article 23.
  141. "International Religious Freedom Report 2012: Tuvalu". United States Department of State. 20 May 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  142. "Tuvalu".
  143. Gary D. Bouma; Rodney Ling; Douglas Pratt (2010). Religious Diversity in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. p. 198.
  144. Hedley, pp. 46–52
  145. Kofe, Laumua "Old Time Religion" in Tuvalu: A History
  146. "2007 University Student Exchange Programme- Fiji and Tuvalu" (PDF). Saga University-Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU). 9–25 March 2008. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
  147. Lawrence Zdenek Walker. "Elective Report April–May 2012" (PDF). Retrieved 16 March 2013.
  148. "Global AIDS Progress Report of Tuvalu" (PDF). Ministry of Health Tuvalu. 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  149. "Motufoua Secondary School". Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  150. "Fetuvalu High School (Funafuti)". Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  151. "Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate (PSSC), Secretariat of the Pacific Board for Educational Assessment". Spantran. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  152. "University of the South Pacific – Tuvalu Campus". Welcome to the Tuvalu Campus. 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  153. "Tuvalu: 2010 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report; Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion; and Statement by the Executive Director for Tuvalu". International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 11/46. 8 February 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2011.
  154. "Tuvalu: Millennium Development Goal Acceleration Framework – Improving Quality of Education" (PDF). Ministry of Education and Sports, and Ministry of Finance and Economic Development from the Government of Tuvalu; and the United Nations System in the Pacific Islands. April 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  155. Bakalevu, Salanieta & Manuella, David (June 2011). "Open Schooling as a Strategy for Second-chance Education in the Pacific: A desk study report". Commonwealth of Learning (COL) / University of the South Pacific. pp. 96–100. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  156. "Tuvalu Theory of Change Coalition Consultation". The University of the South Pacific. 6 July 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
  157. "Tuvalu" Archived 17 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. 2009 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  158. Hedley, pp. 40–41
  159. Goldsmith, Michael. (1985). Transformations of the Meeting-House in Tuvalu. Antony Hooper and Judith Huntsman, eds., ‘Transformations of Polynesian Culture’ Polynesian Society.
  160. Panapa, Tufoua (2012). "Ethnographic Research on Meanings and Practices of Health in Tuvalu: A Community Report" (PDF). Report to the Tuvaluan Ministries of Health and Education: Ph D Candidate Centre for Development Studies – "Transnational Pacific Health through the Lens of Tuberculosis" Research Group. Department of Anthropology, The University of Auckland, N.Z. pp. 39–41. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  161. Tiraa-Passfield, Anna (September 1996). "The uses of shells in traditional Tuvaluan handicrafts" (PDF). SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin No. 7. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  162. "Kolose: The art of Tuvalu crochet" (PDF). aucklandcouncil. March 2015. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
  163. Mallon, Sean (2 October 2013). "Wearable art: Tuvalu style". Museum of New Zealand (Te Papa) blog. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
  164. Takemoto, Shoko (4 November 2015). "The Art of Tuvalu – Climate Change through the eyes of artists in Tuvalu". exposure.co. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
  165. Linkels, Ad. The Real Music of Paradise. Rough Guides, Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.). p. 221. ISBN 1-85828-636-0.
  166. Capt. John Hensford, with photos by Tony Prcevich (2012). "The Royal Visit to Tuvalu – September 2012 – The Inside Story" (PDF). Retrieved 6 January 2016.
  167. Murphy, Victoria (18 September 2012). "Game of thrones: Duke and Duchess of Cambridge play king and queen before dancing the night away in Tuvalu". Mirror Online Edition. London. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  168. Morris, Rachel, "To the Lifeboats," in Mother Jones, November/December 2009
  169. Hedley, pp. 60–63
  170. "Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profile: Tuvalu". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2009.
  171. Hedley, Charles (1896). "General account of the Atoll of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (2): 1–72 at 65. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1967.3.1896.487.
  172. "Te Kakeega II – National Strategies for Sustainable Development 2005–2015" (PDF). Government of Tuvalu. 2005. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
  173. Kennedy, Donald (1931). The Ellice Islands Canoe Journal of the Polynesian Society Memoir no. 9. Journal of the Polynesian Society. pp. 71–100.
  174. McQuarrie, Peter (1976). "Nui Island sailing canoes". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 85 (4): 543–548.
  175. Squires, Tony (1 April 2012). "Testing time for tiny Tuvalu". BBC News. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
  176. Panapa, Tufoua (2012). "Ethnographic Research on Meanings and Practices of Health in Tuvalu: A Community Report" (PDF). Report to the Tuvaluan Ministries of Health and Education: Ph D Candidate Centre for Development Studies – "Transnational Pacific Health through the Lens of Tuberculosis" Research Group. Department of Anthropology, The University of Auckland, N.Z. p. 19, footnote 4. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  177. Hedley, p. 56
  178. "Sport: Tuvalu make history at Mini Games". Radio New Zealand International. 3 September 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
  179. Morgan, Liam (10 July 2015). "Tuvalu claim first-ever Pacific Games gold medal as Samoa and Nauru share Port Moresby 2015 powerlifting spoils". Pacific Games 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  180. "Powerlifting 120kg Male". Pacific Games 2015. 10 July 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
  181. "Sport: Tuvalu wins first ever Pacific Games gold". Radio New Zealand International. 11 July 2015. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
  182. "Tuvalu eye place in football family". FIFA. 22 September 2008
  183. Frew, Craig (9 December 2013). "Tuvalu still dreams of joining Fifa's world football family". BBC Scotland. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
  184. "CGF – Tuvalu". Commonwealth Games Federation. Archived from the original on 29 July 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
  185. "Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau Newsletter (TPB: 02/2012)". London 2012 – Tuvalu in the 30th Olympiad of the Modern Era. 7 August 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
  186. "The Underdogs: 15 Olympic Athletes That Could Shock the World". Rolling Stone. 5 August 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
  187. "Tuvalu Accepts Article VIII Obligations". International Monetary Fund press release no. 16/483. 3 November 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  188. Tuvalu: 2012 Article IV Consultation—IMF Country Report No. 12/259: IMF Executive Board Concludes 2012 Article IV Consultation with Tuvalu (PDF). International Monetary Fund. September 2012. p. 55.
  189. "Tuvalu: 2014 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report; Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion; and Statement by the Executive Director for Tuvalu" (PDF). International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 14/253. 5 August 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  190. "Development and consolidation crucial for Sopoaga". Island Business. January 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  191. "Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects". World Economic Outlook. International Monetary Fund. April 2016.
  192. "Australian Government: AusAID (Tuvalu)". Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
  193. "Maritime Training Project: Program Completion Reports". Asian Development Bank. September 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
  194. Dornan, Matthew (4 March 2015). "The Pacific islands 'tuna cartel' is boosting jobs by watching fish". The Conversation. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
  195. Conway, James M. (2015). "Entrepreneurship, Tuvalu, development and .tv: a response" (PDF). Island Studies Journal. 10 (2): 229–252.
  196. Berkens, Michael H. (25 February 2012). "Verisign Renews Contract With Tuvalu To Run .TV Registry Through 2021". The Domains. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  197. Lee, Alexander (23 December 2019). "Tuvalu is a tiny island nation of 11,000 people. It's cashing in thanks to Twitch". Washington Post. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  198. "Nimmo Bell (Tuvalu Trust Fund)". Retrieved 1 September 2011.
  199. Coutts, Geraldine (16 May 2013). "US signs new tuna agreement with the Pacific". Radio Australia. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
  200. "United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States". SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES: Small Islands Big(ger) Stakes. UN-OHRLLS. 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  201. "Tuvalu – Draft Country Review Paper, Implementation in Asia and the Pacific of the Brussels Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the Decade 2001–2010: progress made, obstacles encountered and the way forward" (PDF). The United Nations. 8 January 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  202. "Tuvalu wants changes in assessment of LDC criteria". Radio New Zealand International. 23 September 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  203. Andrew McIntyre; Brian Bell & Solofa Uota (February 2012). ""Fakafoou – To Make New": Tuvalu Infrastructure Strategy and Investment Plan" (PDF). Government of Tuvalu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  204. "Tourism Highlights 2017 edition". UNWTO. 2017. doi:10.18111/9789284419029. ISBN 9789284419029.
  205. Tuvalu's official tourism website. Timelesstuvalu.com. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  206. Southerden, Louise (29 June 2016). "Between Australia and Hawaii, the world's tiniest paradise". Traveller.
  207. Jo Tacchi, Heather Horst, Evangelia Papoutsaki, Verena Thomas and Joys Eggins (6 October 2013). "State of Media & Communication Report – Tuvalu" (PDF). Pacific Media Assistance Scheme (PACMAS). Retrieved 5 January 2015.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  208. "Minister Launches First Private Newspaper In The Country – "Tuvalu Paradise News"". tuvaluparadise.tv. 28 September 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  209. Maui, Atufenua; Kwato'o, Tony; Vetter, Ronald; Chisaki, Yoshifumi & Usagawa, Tsuyoshi (June 2012). "Preliminary Use of an E-learning Pilot System for Secondary Educational Institutions in Tuvalu: The Initial Implementation" (PDF). International Journal of E-Education, E-Business, E-Management and E-Learning. 2 (3).
  210. "UNDP Supports Tuvalu Ship". Fiji Sun Online. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  211. Moceituba, Atasa (3 February 2016). "Brand-new vessel for Tuvalu". The Fiji Times. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
  212. "Kiribati private business buys Tuvalu's Nivaga II to operate in Kiribati". RADIO KIRIBATI/PACNEWS. 25 May 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  213. "Funafuti Service". Air Kiribati. 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
  214. Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen (9 February 2018). "Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations". Nature Communications. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  215. Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen (9 February 2018). "Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations (Supplementary Note 2)". Nature Communications. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  216. Movono, Lice (12 February 2018). "Tuvalu PM refutes AUT research". The Fijian Times. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
  217. McNeil, F. S. (1954). "Organic reefs and banks and associated detrital sediments". American Journal of Science. 252 (7): 385–401. doi:10.2475/ajs.252.7.385. on p. 396 McNeil defines atoll as an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories other than reefs and composed of reef detritus
  218. Sandrine Job; Daniela Ceccarelli (December 2011). "Tuvalu Marine Life Synthesis Report" (PDF). an Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  219. Sandrine Job; Daniela Ceccarelli (December 2012). "Tuvalu Marine Life Scientific Report" (PDF). an Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  220. Dr A J Tilling & Ms E Fihaki (17 November 2009). Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (PDF). Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. p. 7.
  221. Compiled by Randy Thaman with assistance from Faoliu Teakau, Moe Saitala, Epu Falega, Feagaiga Penivao, Mataio Tekenene and Semese Alefaio (2016). "Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Fifth National Report to the Convention 0n Biological Diversity" (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade, Tourism, Environment and Labour Government of Tuvalu. Retrieved 25 May 2019.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  222. Randy Thaman, Feagaiga Penivao, Faoliu Teakau, Semese Alefaio, Lamese Saamu, Moe Saitala, Mataio Tekinene and Mile Fonua (2017). "Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community-Based Ridge-To-Reef (R2R)" (PDF). Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) In Tuvalu. Retrieved 25 May 2019.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  223. Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568.
  224. "Current and Future Climate of Tuvalu" (PDF). Tuvalu Meteorological Service, Australian Bureau of Meteorology & Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  225. "El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Diagnostic Discussion". Climate Prediction Center National Centers for Environmental Prediction – NOAA/National Weather Service. 10 April 2014. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
  226. "Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Funafuti, Tuvalu". Weatherbase. 2011. Retrieved on 24 November 2011.
  227. Mason, Moya K. "Tuvalu: Flooding, Global Warming, and Media Coverage". Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  228. Holowaty Krales, Amelia (20 February 2011). "Chasing the Tides, parts I & II". Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  229. "Tuvalu to Benefit from International Dredging Aid". Dredging News. 1 April 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
  230. Editor (27 November 2015). "Coast contractor completes aid project in remote Tuvalu". SunshineCoastDaily. Retrieved 28 November 2015.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  231. Carter, Ralf (4 July 1986). "Wind and Sea Analysis – Funafuti Lagoon, Tuvalu" (PDF). South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme and UNDP Project RAS/81/102 (Technical. Report No. 58 of PE/TU.3). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  232. Lusama, Tafue (29 November 2011). "Tuvalu plight must be heard by UNFCC". The Drum – Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
  233. Whitty, Julia (2003). "All the Disappearing Islands". Mother Jones. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  234. Govan, Hugh; et al. (June 2007). "Funafuti Atoll Coral Reef Restoration Project – baseline report" (PDF). Coral Reefs in the Pacific (CRISP), Nouméa. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
  235. "Hope for Tuvalu in 'sand' that grows, the Asahi Shimbun". Retrieved 8 September 2010.
  236. "Project for Eco-technological management of Tuvalu against sea level rise". Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 31 March 2009. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  237. Krales, Amelia Holowaty (18 October 2011). "As Danger Laps at Its Shores, Tuvalu Pleads for Action". The New York Times – Green: A Blog about Energy and the Environment. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  238. Baarsch, Florent (4 March 2011). "Warming oceans and human waste hit Tuvalu's sustainable way of life". The Guardian. London.
  239. "Tuvalu / Water, Waste and Sanitation Project (TWWSP): CRIS FED/2009/021-195, ANNEX" (PDF). European Union. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  240. Kingston, P A (2004). Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the Pacific Islands: Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment, Country Reports. WHO. Retrieved 25 March 2010
  241. "Tuvalu – 10th European Development Fund". Delegation of the European Union. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  242. "Mission to Tuvalu – Press Statement United Nations Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation". Ms. Catarina de Albuquerque, United Nations Special Rapporteur. 19 July 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  243. "Tuvalu urged to develop national water strategy". Australian Network News. 19 July 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  244. Marantz, Andrew (December 2011). "A rising tide: Planning the future of a sinking island". Harpers. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  245. Marantz, Andrew (18 March 2015). "The Wages of Cyclone Pam". The New Yorker. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  246. "Tuvalu to intoduce [sic] new early warning system". Radio New Zealand. 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
  247. Lewis, James (December 1989). "Sea level rise: Some implications for Tuvalu". The Environmentalist. 9 (4): 269–275. doi:10.1007/BF02241827. S2CID 84796023.
  248. Bureau of Meteorology (1975) Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 1971–1972 Australian Government Publishing Service
  249. McLean, R.F. and Munro, D. (1991). "Late 19th century Tropical Storms and Hurricanes in Tuvalu" (PDF). South Pacific Journal of Natural History. 11: 213–219.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  250. Resture, Jane. "Hurricane 1883". Tuvalu and the Hurricanes: ‘Gods Who Die’ by Julian Dana as told by George Westbrook. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  251. Pasoni Taafaki, Hugh Laracy (ed.) (1983). "Chapter 2 – The Old Order". Tuvalu: A History. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu. p. 27.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  252. Connell, John (2015). "Vulnerable Islands: Climate Change, Tectonic Change, and Changing Livelihoods in the Western Pacific" (PDF). The Contemporary Pacific. 27 (1): 1–36. doi:10.1353/cp.2015.0014. hdl:10125/38764.
  253. Resture, Jane (5 October 2009). "Hurricane Bebe 1972". Tuvalu and the Hurricanes: ‘The Hurricane in Funafuti, Tuvalu’ by Pasefika Falani (Pacific Frank). Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  254. Koop, Neville L; Fiji Meteorological Service (Winter 1991). DeAngellis, Richard M (ed.). Samoa Depression (Mariners Weather Log). 35. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Oceanographic Data Service. p. 53. ISSN 0025-3367. OCLC 648466886.
  255. Report on the disaster preparedness workshop held in Funafuti, Tuvalu, 14 – 17 October, 1991 (PDF) (Report). Australian Overseas Disaster Response Organisation. April 1992. pp. 2–3, 6. ISBN 1875405054. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2014.
  256. Emergency Plan of Action (EPoA) Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam (PDF). International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (Report). ReliefWeb. 16 March 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  257. "One Tuvalu island evacuated after flooding from Pam". Radio New Zealand International. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  258. "Flooding in Vanuatu, Kiribati and Tuvalu as Cyclone Pam strengthens". SBS Australia. 13 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  259. "State of emergency in Tuvalu". Radio New Zealand International. 14 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  260. "45 percent of Tuvalu population displaced – PM". Radio New Zealand International. 15 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  261. "Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No. 1 (as of 22 March 2015)". Relief Web. 22 March 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
  262. "Forgotten paradise under water". United Nations Development Programme. 1 May 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  263. "Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No. 2 (as of 30 March 2015)". Relief Web. 30 March 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
  264. Wilson, David (4 July 2015). "Vasafua Islet vanishes". Tuvalu-odyssey.net. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  265. Endou, Shuuichi (28 March 2015). "バサフア島、消失・・・(Vasafua Islet vanishes)". Tuvalu Overview (Japanese). Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  266. "Tuvalu situation update: Securing health from disastrous impacts of cyclone Pam in Tuvalu". Relief Web/World health Organisation – Western Pacific Region. 3 April 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  267. Shukman, David (22 January 2008). "Tuvalu struggles to hold back tide". BBC News. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
  268. "Tuvalu surveys road damage after king tides". Radio New Zealand. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  269. Packard, Aaron (12 March 2015). "The Unfolding Crisis in Kiribati and the Urgency of Response". HuffPostGreen. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  270. Farbotko, Carol. "Saving Tuvaluan Culture from Imminent Danger" (PDF). Climate Change: Risks and Solutions, 'Sang Saeng', pages 11–13, No 21 Spring 2008. Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCEIU) under the auspices of UNESCO. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  271. Lazrus, Heather. "Island Vulnerability (Tuvalu)". Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  272. "Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Tuvalu Report of In-Country Consultations" (PDF). Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREC). 2009. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  273. "Sea Level Rise A Big Problem For Tuvalu, Prime Minister Says". 22 July 1997. Retrieved 24 December 2009.
  274. Patel, S. S. (2006). "A sinking feeling". Nature. 440 (7085): 734–736. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..734P. doi:10.1038/440734a. PMID 16598226. S2CID 1174790.
  275. Hunter, J. A. (2002). "Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti, Tuvalu" (PDF). Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre, Australia. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  276. "'Sinking' Pacific nation is getting bigger, showing islands are geologically dynamic: study | The Japan Times". 11 February 2018. Archived from the original on 11 February 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
  277. Kench, Paul S; Ford, Murray R; Owen, Susan D (2018). "Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 605. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9..605K. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1. PMC 5807422. PMID 29426825.
  278. "TUVALU PM REFUTES AUT RESEARCH". 19 March 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  279. Eleanor Ainge Roy (17 May 2019). "'One day we'll disappear': Tuvalu's sinking islands". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  280. Vincent Gray (15 June 2006). "The Truth about Tuvalu". Retrieved 14 April 2018.
  281. de Freitas, Chris (11 December 2013). "Human interference real threat to Pacific atolls". NZ HERALD/PACNEWS. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  282. Hunter, John R. (2002). "A Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti, Tuvalu" (PDF). Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  283. "Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research". Pacific Climate Change Science Program (Australian Government). November 2011. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
  284. "Ch.15 Tuvalu". Climate Change in the Pacific: Volume 2: Country Reports. Australia Government: Pacific Climate Change Science Program. 2011.
  285. "Tuvalu's National Adaptation Programme of Action" (PDF). Department of Environment of Tuvalu. May 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  286. Mason, Moya K. (1983). "Tuvalu: Flooding, Global Warming, and Media Coverage". Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  287. Dekker, Rodney (9 December 2011). "Island neighbours at the mercy of rising tides". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
  288. Anne Fauvre Chambers; Keith Stanley Chambers (2007). "Five Takes on Climate and Cultural Change in Tuvalu". The Contemporary Pacific. 19 (1): 294–306. doi:10.1353/cp.2007.0004.
  289. Kench, Paul. "Dynamic atolls give hope that Pacific Islands can defy sea rise". The Conversation. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
  290. Arthur P. Webba & Paul S. Kench (2010). "The dynamic response of reef islands to sea-level rise: Evidence from multi-decadal analysis of island change in the Central Pacific". Global and Planetary Change. 72 (3): 234–246. Bibcode:2010GPC....72..234W. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.05.003.
  291. Warne, Kennedy (13 February 2015). "Will Pacific Island Nations Disappear as Seas Rise? Maybe Not – Reef islands can grow and change shape as sediments shift, studies show". National Geographic. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
  292. Kench, Paul (2015). "Coral islands defy sea-level rise over the past century: Records from a central Pacific atoll". Geology. 43 (6): 515–518. Bibcode:2015Geo....43..515K. doi:10.1130/G36555.1.
  293. Kench, Thompson, Ford, Ogawa and McLean (2015). "GSA DATA REPOSITORY 2015184 (Changes in planform characteristics of 29 islands located on Funafuti's atoll rim)" (PDF). The Geological Society of America. Retrieved 22 January 2017.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  294. Dickinson, William R. (2009). "Pacific Atoll Living: How Long Already and Until When?" (PDF). GSA Today. 19 (3): 4–10. doi:10.1130/GSATG35A.1.
  295. Kench, Paul. "Dynamic atolls give hope that Pacific Islands can defy sea rise (Comments)". The Conversation. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
  296. Taafaki, Tauaasa (2007). "Polynesia in Review: Issues and Events, 1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006, Tuvalu" (PDF). The Contemporary Pacific. 19 (1): 276–286. doi:10.1353/cp.2007.0036.
  297. Political Parties Cautious On Tuvalu-Kioa Plan, Pacific Magazine, 21 February 2006.
  298. "Relocation for climate change victims is no answer, says Tuvalu PM". Radio New Zealand International. 3 September 2013. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
  299. "Pacific women hone climate change negotiation skills". RNZ. 2 February 2017. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  300. Sims, Alexandra (2 December 2015). "Pacific Island Tuvalu calls for 1.5 degrees global warming limit or faces 'total demise'". The Independent. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
  301. Sopoaga, Enele S. (30 November 2015). "Keynote statement delivered by the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, the Honourable Enele S. Sopoaga, at the leaders events for heads of state and government at the opening of the COP21" (PDF). Government of Tuvalu. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
  302. "Adoption of the Paris agreement—Proposal by the President—Draft decision -/CP.21" (PDF). UNFCCC. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  303. "Tuvalu PM praises COP 21 agreement". Radio New Zealand International. 16 December 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
  304. Phelan, Erin (15 May 2000). "Tuvalu in World TV Festival". Pacific Islands Report. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  305. "DER Documentary: The Disappearing of Tuvalu: Trouble in Paradise". DER Documentary. 2004. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  306. "Documentary: Paradise Drowned". NZ Geographic. 2004. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  307. "Time and Tide". Wavecrest Films. 2005. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  308. "Atlantis Approaching: The Movie". Blue Marble Productions. 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  309. "King Tide – The Sinking of Tuvalu". Juriaan Booij. 2007. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  310. "Missie Tuvalu / Mission Tuvalu documentary". Omroep Brabant. 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
  311. "ThuleTuvalu". HesseGreutert Film/OdysseyFilm. 2014. Retrieved 30 September 2017.

Further reading

  • Lonely Planet Guide: South Pacific & Micronesia, by various.ISBN 1786572184 ISBN 978-1786572189
  • Chalkley, John, (1999) Vaitupu: Two Years on a Remote Polynesian Atoll, Matuku Publications. ISBN 9780953487608 ISBN 0953487601
  • Ells, Philip, (2008) Where the Hell Is Tuvalu? Virgin Books. ISBN 0753511304 ISBN 978-0753511305
Biodiversity
Culture, customs and traditions
  • Sandra Iren (2013), Barkås, Alofa – Expressions of Love: Change and Continuity in Tuvalu
  • Brady, Ivan (1972). "Kinship Reciprocity in the Ellice Islands", Journal of the Polynesian Society 81:3, 290–316
  • Brady, Ivan, (1974). "Land Tenure in the Ellice Islands", in Henry P. Lundsaarde (ed). Land Tenure in Oceania, Honolulu, University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 0824803213 ISBN 9780824803216
  • Chambers, Keith & Anne Chambers, (January 2001) Unity of Heart: Culture and Change in a Polynesian Atoll Society, Waveland Pr Inc. ISBN 1577661664 ISBN 978-1577661665
  • Corlew, Laura Kati (May 2012). The Cultural Impacts of Climate Change (PDF) (PhD). University of Hawaii. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  • Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands (1931): Thomas Avery & Sons, New Plymouth, N.Z.
  • Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, Land tenure in the Ellice Islands, Journal of the Polynesian Society., Vol. 64, no. 4 (Dec. 1953):348–358.
  • Koch, Gerd, (1961) Die Materielle Kulture der Ellice-Inseln, Berlin: Museum fur Volkerkunde; The English translation by Guy Slatter, was published as The Material Culture of Tuvalu, University of the South Pacific in Suva (1981) ASIN B0000EE805.
History
  • Hedley, Charles (1896). "General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (2): 1–72. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1967.3.1896.487.
  • Tuvalu: A History (1983) Isala, Tito and Larcy, Hugh (eds.), Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu.
  • Bedford, R., Macdonald, B., & Munro, D., (1980) Population Estimates for Kiribati and Tuvalu, 1850–1900: Review and Speculation, Journal of the Polynesian Society, 89, 199–246.
  • Bollard, AE., (1981) The financial adventures of J. C. Godeffroy and Son in the Pacific, Journal of Pacific History, 16: 3–19.
  • Firth, S., (1973) German Firms in the Western Pacific Islands, 1857–1914, Journal of Pacific History, 8: 10–28.
  • Geddes, W. H., Chambers, A., Sewell, B., Lawrence, R., & Watters, R. (1982) Islands on the Line, team report. Atoll economy: Social change in Kiribati and Tuvalu, No. 1, Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre.
  • Goodall, N. (1954) A history of the London Missionary Society 1895–1945, London: Oxford University Press.
  • Macdonald, Barrie, (1971) Local Government in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 1892–1969 – part 1, Journal of Administration Overseas, 10, 280–293.
  • Macdonald, Barrie, (1972) Local Government in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 1892–1969 – part 2, Journal of Administration Overseas, 11, 11–27.
  • Macdonald, Barrie, (2001) Cinderellas of the Empire: Towards a History of Kiribati and Tuvalu, Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. ISBN 982-02-0335-X (Australian National University Press, first published 1982).
  • Munro, D, Firth, S., (1986) Towards Colonial Protectorates: The Case of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 32: 63–71.
  • Maude, H. E., (1949) The Co-operative Movement in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (Technical Paper No. 1), South Pacific Commission, Sydney.
  • Suamalie N.T. Iosefa, Doug Munro, Niko Besnier, (1991) Tala O Niuoku, Te: The German Plantation on Nukulaelae Atoll 1865–1890, Published by the Institute of Pacific Studies. ISBN 9820200733.
  • Pulekai A. Sogivalu, (1992) A Brief History of Niutao, Published by the Institute of Pacific Studies. ISBN 982020058X.
Language
  • Vaiaso ote Gana, Tuvalu Language Week Education Resource 2016 (New Zealand Ministry for Pacific Peoples)
  • Besnier, Niko, (1995) Literacy, Emotion and Authority: Reading and Writing on a Polynesian Atoll, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521485398 ISBN 978-0521485395
  • Besnier, Niko, (2000) Tuvaluan: A Polynesian Language of the Central Pacific. (Descriptive Grammars) Routledge ISBN 0415024560 ISBN 978-0415024563.
  • Jackson, Geoff W. & Jenny Jackson, (1999) An Introduction to Tuvaluan. ISBN 9829027023 ISBN 978-9829027023.
  • Jackson, Geoff W., (1994) Te Tikisionale O Te Gana Tuvalu, A Tuvaluan-English Dictionary, Suva, Fiji, Oceania Printers. ASIN: B0006F7FNY
  • Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, Te ngangana a te Tuvalu – Handbook on the language of the Ellice Islands (1946) Websdale, Shoosmith, Sydney N.S.W.
Music and dance
  • Christensen, Dieter, (1964) Old Musical Styles in the Ellice Islands, Western Polynesia, Ethnomusicology, 8:1, 34–40.
  • Christensen, Dieter and Gerd Koch, (1964) Die Musik der Ellice-Inseln, Berlin: Museum fur Volkerkunde.
  • Koch, Gerd, (2000) Songs of Tuvalu (translated by Guy Slatter), Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. ISBN 9820203147 ISBN 978-9820203143
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.