Use of drugs in warfare

Alcohol has a long association of military use, and has been called "liquid courage" for its role in preparing troops for battle. It has also been used to anaesthetize injured soldiers, celebrate military victories, and cope with the emotions of defeat. In the Russo-Japanese War, alcohol has been implicated as a factor contributing to the Russian loss. Russian commanders, sailors, and soldiers were said to be drunk more than sober. Countries often enabled alcohol use by their troops through providing alcohol in their rations. The British Royal Navy maintained alcohol rations until 1970.[1]

There is a strong association of military service and alcohol use disorder. In 1862, British soldiers in India responded to the threat of problematic alcohol use by establishing the Soldiers' Total Abstinence Association, which became the Army Temperance Association in 1888. Similar organizations formed in other branches of military and for British troops stationed in other colonies. Members of these abstinence associations were encouraged to sign pledges to avoid alcohol entirely. Medals were awarded to individuals who remained abstinent.[2] Studies show that Australian veterans of the Gulf War had a prevalence of alcohol use disorder higher than any other psychological disorder; UK veterans of modern conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan had higher rates of alcohol use disorder than servicemembers who were not deployed.[2]

Pervitin, an amphetamine used in World War II

Amphetamines were given to troops to increase alertness. They had the added benefits of reducing appetites and fatigue. Germany, in particular, embraced amphetamines during World War II. From April to July of 1940, German servicemembers received more than 35 million methamphetamine pills. German troops would go as many as three days without sleep during the invasion of France. In contrast, Britain distributed 72 million amphetamine tablets during the entire war.[1]

Military use has contributed to the rise of caffeine as the world's most popular drug. During the American Civil War, each Union troop received a coffee ration of 36 lb (16 kg) annually. World War I saw the dramatic rise of instant coffee: by the end of the conflict, daily production was 42,500 lb (19,300 kg), a 3,000% increase from pre-war production.[1]

World War I saw the greatest use of cocaine amongst militaries. It was used for medical purposes and as a performance enhancer. At the time, it was not a controlled substance, and was readily available to troops. The British Army distributed cocaine-containing pills under Tabloid's brand name "Forced March",[3] which were advertised to suppress appetite and increase endurance. In response to a moral panic about the effects of cocaine on society, the British Army Council passed an order in 1916 that prohibited the unauthorized sale of psychoactive drugs like cocaine and opiates to servicemembers.[4]

Franciscan scholar Bernardino de Sahagún wrote that the Chichimeca people of Mexico consumed the root of the peyote, a cactus, to stimulate themselves for battle. In his 1887 Historia del Nayarit (English: History of Nayarit), José Ortego also wrote that it was a favorite stimulant in warfare.[5] It has been speculated that berserkers, who were Scandinavian warriors, used the hallucinogenic mushroom Amanita muscaria to enter a trance-like state before battle. Karsten Fatur thought it was plausible that instead of A. muscaria, berserkers consumed the plant Hyoscyamus niger (known as henbane or stinking nightshade). While both A. muscaria and H. niger can result in delirious behavior, twitching, increased strength, and redness of the face, H. niger is additionally known to have pain-numbing properties.[6]

During the American Civil War, opiates were the most effective painkillers available to military surgeons. They were also used to treat diarrhea, muscle spasms of amputees, gangrene, dysentary inflammation from gunshot wounds, and to sedate agitated troops.[7] The Union Army requisitioned 5.3–10 million opium pills throughout the war,[7][8] and a further 2.8 million ounces of opiate preparation (such as laudanum). Many veterans of the war had opiate addictions.[8] Opiate addiction became known as "soldier's disease" and "army disease", though the precise effect of the American Civil War on the overall prevalence of opiate addiction is unknown.[9] As a result of World War I, hundreds of thousands of soldiers developed severe opiate addictions, as morphine was commonly used to treat injuries.[4]

A Japanese-American soldier, wounded during an attack, receives cigarettes from English actress Madeleine Carroll

Tobacco has been viewed as essential to maintaining the morale of troops. Starting with the Thirty Years' War in Europe, major military encounters caused a surge in tobacco usage, mostly stemming from soldiers' use. During World War I, US Army General John J. Pershing noted, "You ask me what we need to win this war. I answer tobacco as much as bullets. Tobacco is as indispensable as the daily ration; we must have thousands of tons without delay."[1] This sentiment was echoed by US Army General George Goethals, who noted tobacco was as important as food, and US medical officer William Gorgas who said that tobacco promoted contentment and morale, and the benefits outweighed any potential health risks.[1] Such was the tobacco consumption of its troops that the US Government became the single-largest purchaser of cigarettes, including cigarettes in troops' rations and at discounted prices at post exchanges.[1]