African American genealogy

African American genealogy is a field of genealogy pertaining specifically to the African American population of the United States. The African American genealogists who document the families, family histories, and lineages of African Americans are faced with unique challenges due to the slave practices of the Antebellum South and North.[1] These challenges rise from a range of events, including name changes following the American Civil War, the act of separating families for sale as slaves, lack of issued birth or death records for slaves, etc.[1]

Southern African-American Family on Porch

The development of a genogram – a structured version of a pedigree chart or family tree – serves as an integral part of identity development, specifically in African American populations.[2] In the twenty-first century, the internet has made the resources uniquely necessary to African American genealogy available to the public and the individual’s personal ability to research, create, and maintain their own family tree has dramatically increased.

Genealogical DNA testing has also provided great strides forward in the tracing of African American genealogy, although some researchers warn of potential drawbacks.[3] DNA testing is able to help trace African American ancestry to a general area of Africa.[4]

Family trees
Family Tree/Pedigree Example

Genealogy (from Greek: genea “generation, descent” and -logia “the study of”)[5] is the study of and enumeration of families, family histories, and lineages. Genealogists use a number of resources – including, but not limited to, census records, death certificates, family trees, and oral histories – to document ancestral relationships and lines. Companies such as FamilySearch, Ancestry.com, and MyHeritage among others have encouraged individuals to become personal family genealogists and record and trace their own family histories.

The most common way personal family genealogists record their family histories is with family trees, also known as a pedigree chart or a genogram (a structured, formal family tree). A family tree is a physical representation of an individual’s ancestors listed in a way that often resembles a tree. Family trees can range from a simplistic listing of parents, grandparents, great-grandparents etc. or a more complex listing of siblings, parents, aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, etc. and can be stylistically / artistically drawn or plainly listed. Family trees provide a clear visual representation of the members in one's family by displaying how everyone is related; they also include information regarding where and when individuals were born.

Challenges

Many challenges can come with doing African American Genealogy. It requires creativity, a lot of research, and tracking to discover lost ancestors.

Lack of records

Slavery, racial prejudice, and Jim Crow laws mean that many records aren't easily accessible, available, or complete. The 1870 federal census was the first to record many former slaves by name. This makes finding family members before then very difficult.[6] Due to a lack of documentation of early African American individuals and families, individuals must usually go through records of the slave owner or slave holder in order to find their ancestors prior to the emancipation. As you conduct research on the family of the slaveholder, you can find records, hints, or other clues that will help track your ancestry, or individual ancestor and their movements and life.[7] Some way to do this include looking at the slaveholder's journals, history, paper trail, probate records, wills, and property deeds. Probate, account, and deed records will all be in the slaveholder's name.[8] Usually these records will include the number of slaves held, their names, and sometimes even age, sex, and birth.

Transferring property ownership
Suppressed - Human flesh at auction

Slaves would often be bought and sold, moving from one person to another, as well as one plantation to the next. Some slaves ran away and then were caught and sold again. This sometimes constant movement causes challenges in tracking the location and residency of the ancestor. A large portion of slaveowners inherited their slaves from other family members. In these cases, looking at estate records, inventory documents, wills, and slave schedules is the most helpful.[9] When slaves were sold and bought by various people, a variety of records were kept. This can include property deeds, newspapers, probate records, and bills of sale.[10] Property deeds will often include information about when one person is transferring the ownership of their slave to the new buyer.

To see more information on estate records, wills, and slave schedules, click here

Name changes

Discovering a surname for a slave either during slavery or after slavery poses a great challenge because they were so often changed. After the passing of the Emancipation Proclamation, many former slaves adopted new names of their own choosing, or adopted the names and surnames of their previous owners.[11] Many slaves changed their last name to that of "Freedman" to represent their new standing in society. They did this to either adopt a surname for the very first time, or they wanted to replace a surname that was given to them by a former master.[12] There are many cases where a family once enslaved has passed down a name through several generations, and others chose a name that completely separated themselves from slavery and their former owners. Many newly freed slaves would choose the name of a popular person whom they admired, or considered influential and important. Some examples include changing their name out of admiration for a black or white abolitionist, or even to the surname of a U.S. President. Other freed slaves changed their names for reasons such as occupation, skills that they held, or a place that they had lived.[13] Some names were taken for reasons that will only ever be known of by the slave themselves.[14] In other cases, they had their names assigned to them by record takers.[13]

Most of the records searched will have originated from the slaveowner and was written for their own purposes. As owners often rarely had knowledge of the slave's chosen names and would put down a name that they used to differentiate that slave from another slave. Due to these challenges, it is important to do more significant research to be more sure of an ancestor's name and its significance.[15]

Resources

Types of records

Before the Emancipation:

Runaway slave advertisement for May 2, 1765.
Record Type Description
1860 U.S. Census Can identify names of slaveholders.
1860 U.S. Census Slave Schedules A separate census used to identify slaves as property. It includes the names of slave owners along with details about the slaves they own. You can identify which plantations and families had slaves.
Manifests Documents that detailed the cargo coming and going from ports.
Plantation Records Includes details of slaves who lived there.
Property Deed Can detail the possession of slaves and the transaction or transfer from one person to the next through deeds and Slave Trade registers.
Probate Records Can include wills that show the transfer of slaves to family members, documents showing slaves counting as tax, and can even include public auction records.
Newspapers Includes ads for the selling of slaves, ads calling for their imprisonment or apprehension, or ads to notify the slave owner of their apprehension.
Bill of Sale Documents sometimes the name, sex, age, price sold, and other details of a slave who had been sold.
Estate Records Generally lists the inventory of the estate, and typically listed enslaved individuals by name, included their age, and sometimes listed the family they belonged to.
Church Records Lists members which can provide helpful hints to the identifying of slaves especially before the Civil War.
Military Records Lists most if not all the vital information for black soldiers who served in the American Civil War and others.
US Census, New Jersey, 1860

After the Emancipation:

Record Type Description
Emancipation Documents Can include both manumissions and evidences or affidavits of freedom[16]
Bible Records Would often list the name and dates of births, deaths, and marriages kept in old bibles.
Death Certificate Wasn't required by law until the 20th century, but can help identify names of parents who lived before the Civil War.
Newspapers Can contain obituaries, ads of freed blacks searching for their family etc.

For more a further list of records and more detailed descriptions, click here

For steps on using these records, click here

Freedmen's Bureau (1865–72)

During the era of Reconstruction after the Civil War, the United States congress enacted the Freedmen’s Bureau (also known as the Bureau of Refugees, or Freedmen and Abandoned Lands) in 1865.[17] The Freedmen’s Bureau could be considered one of the first federal welfare programs. It supervised relief efforts to provide help to millions of African American’s with their transition from slavery to freedom and citizenship and to impoverished whites with aid as well as provided general assistance in the post-war Southern states.[18] Under the Freedmen’s Bureau, education (including black colleges) was made available, hospitals were built, efforts went underway to reunite families, there was the assignment of ex-confederate land, distribution of food and clothing, and the creation of legal records that contain the names of hundreds of  formerly enslaved individuals and sometimes the name of their white owners.[19] During the years 1865-1972, the creation of records such as legal marriage certificates, school records, census lists, medical records, and court records (to see a full list, click here) of African Americans make the Freedmen's Bureau a priceless resource to the historian in search of their ancestry.[20]

Office of the Freedmen's Bureau, Memphis, Tennessee. (1866) From Harper's weekly : a journal of civilization. (New York: Harper' s Weekly Co., 1857-1916).

The vast variety of accessible records from the Freedmen’s Bureau can give us a wealth of information about our past ancestors. These records can contain:

  • The name of the individual
  • Date the record was taken
  • Residence
  • Age
  • Gender
  • Birth date and place
  • Death date and place
  • Marriage date and place
  • Names of family members

Although most records are in reference to recently freed slaves, whether or not you have African American relatives, anyone with ancestors living in the American South during this time period can benefit.[21] Other information sometimes included is:

  • Names of the freed slave’s former owner
  • Former employers
  • Names of those who took the records, or interacted with the Freedmen’s Bureau

For more information on records and the Freedmen's bureau, click here

List of databases for finding African American ancestors

This list does not satisfy particular standards for completeness, but can guide you in your search for finding your African American ancestors.

Database Description
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database Analyzes various slave trades and view interactive maps, timelines, and animations to see the dispersal in action.
Large Slaveholders of 1860 Can discover whether or not your ancestor was a slaveholder, and those of African-American descent can find their ancestor using the name of the slaveholder in order to find more information on their name, sex, color, and age.
Unknown No Longer Provides users with access to an expanded collection of resources for researching African American history in Virginia.
Texas Runaway Slave Project For about 2,500 slaves in Texas, it contains runaway slave advertisements, articles and notices from newspapers published in Texas, as well as materials from court records, manuscript collections, and books.
Freedom on the Move Collection of newspaper ads in the America colonies that include posted "runaway ads" by enslavers, and jailers describing people they have apprehended.
Last Seen: Finding Family After Slavery Collection of thousands of "Information Wanted Ads" taken out by former slaves to look for your ancestors.
Lost Friends Collection of ads written by formerly enslaved people in search of lost family and friends.
See also

DNA

Genealogical DNA testing has provided great strides forward in the tracing of African American genealogy.[3] Companies such as 23andMe, Ancestry.com, and MyHeritage all offer DNA test kits that allow individuals to trace their heritage back to approximate geographic locations.[4] For African Americans in the United States, who are often unsure of exactly where their ancestors were taken from as slaves, these results can be emotionally liberating.[3]

Most companies use one of three types of DNA testing : (1) Y-chromosome testing, (2) Mitochondrial DNA testing, or (3) autosomal DNA testing.[22] Y-chromosome testing traces ancestry through the paternal line.[22] Mitochondrial DNA testing traces ancestry through the maternal line.[22] Autosomal DNA testing traces ancestry through both lines.[22]

One often cited limitation of genealogical DNA testing are the shifting boundaries created by increased testing.[23] In large part because of the continued development of genealogical DNA testing, the current accuracy of these tests is not 100%.[23] As more DNA data points are gathered, the tests become more accurate.[23] It is not unheard of for this increase in accuracy to change the geographical test results of an individual.[23] The geographical boundaries between countries of modern day African also present a limitation.[4] These boundaries are not natural boundaries, but instead geo-political boundaries created by colonizing Europeans.[4] Additionally, historical migration can lead to discrepancies between familial expectation and reality.[22] One example is that ancestors who migrated to the Caribbean from Sub-Saharan African will not appear as Caribbean, but as Sub-Saharan African.

There is also a medico-ethical criticism often raised against using DNA testing to assist with building genograms specifically to help with identity development.[3] While it is acknowledged that DNA testing can provide African Americans with a crucial aspect of their past that has been stolen, the solo use of DNA testing to aid in identity development discounts the role culture plays in identity development.[3] African Americans are encouraged to use their DNA results hand in hand with childhood experiences to recognize their identity within the boundaries of both.[3] This leads to more complete identity development.

References
  1. "African American family research on Ancestry" (PDF).
  2. Mitchell, Michelle D.; Shillingford, M. Ann (2016-11-20). "A Journey to the Past: Promoting Identity Development of African Americans Through Ancestral Awareness". The Family Journal. doi:10.1177/1066480716679656.
  3. Dula, Annette; Royal, Charmaine; Secundy, Marian Gray; Miles, Steven (2003). "The Ethical and Social Implications of Exploring African American Genealogies". Developing World Bioethics. 3 (2): 133–141. doi:10.1046/j.1471-8731.2003.00069.x. ISSN 1471-8847.
  4. Rotimi, Charles N. (2003). "Genetic Ancestry Tracing and the African Identity: A Double-Edged Sword?". Developing World Bioethics. 3 (2): 151–158. doi:10.1046/j.1471-8731.2003.00071.x. ISSN 1471-8847.
  5. "genealogy (n.)".
  6. Siekman, Meaghan E. H. n.d. African American Geneology. New England Historic Genealogical Society. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.americanancestors.org/education/learning-resources/read/african-american-research.
  7. Grimm, Jessica. 2018. African American Genealogy: A Guide to Finding Your Ancestors Online. February 26. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://familyhistorydaily.com/free-genealogy-resources/african-american-genealogy-research/.
  8. Hyland, David. 2020. Facing Challenges, Genealogist Offers Ideas To Trace African American Family Histories. February 28. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.wpr.org/facing-challenges-genealogist-offers-ideas-trace-african-american-family-histories.
  9. MySlaveAncestors.com. 2011. Estate Records . Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.myslaveancestors.com/estaterecords.htm.
  10. n.d. American Slavery Documents. Duke University Libraries. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://repository.duke.edu/dc/americanslaverydocs.
  11. 2020. Facing History and Facing Ourselves. Facing History and Facing Ourselves. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.facinghistory.org/reconstruction-era/changing-names.
  12. Shell, Robert. n.d. Cape Slave Naming Patterns. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/cape-slave-naming-patterns-robert-shell.
  13. Jr., Henry Louis Gates, and Meaghan E.H. Siekman. 2017. Tracing Your Roots: Were Slaves’ Surnames Like Brands? June 17. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.theroot.com/tracing-your-roots-were-slaves-surnames-like-brands-1796141007.
  14. Shell, Robert. n.d. Cape Slave Naming Patterns. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/cape-slave-naming-patterns-robert-shell.
  15. Paterson, David E. 2001. "A Perspective on Indexing." The American Archivist 61: 132-142. Accessed 11 25, 2020.
  16. n.d. Illinois Servitude and Emancipation Records (1722–1863). Illinois State Archives. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://www.cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/archives/databases/servant.html#:~:text=Emancipation%20%E2%80%94%20Emancipation%20records%20include%20both%20manumissions%20and,involve%20the%20appointment%20of%20a%20guardian%20for%20minors.
  17. Editors, History.com. 2010. Freedmen’s Bureau. A&E Television Networks. • https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/freedmens-bureau.
  18. 2016. African American Records: Freedmen's Bureau. National Archives. September 19. Accessed November 6, 2020. https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/freedmens-bureau.
  19. Hurst, Ryan. 2009. Freedmen's Bureau (1865-1872). February 16. Accessed November 6, 2020. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/bureau-refugees-freedmen-and-abandoned-lands-1865-1872/.
  20. n.d. The Freedman's Bureau Records. National Museum of African American History and Culture. Accessed November 25, 2020. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/initiatives/freedmens-bureau-records.
  21. "genealogy, n.". OED Online. September 2020. Oxford University Press.n.d. African American Freedmen's Bureau Records. Family Search. https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/African_American_Freedmen%27s_Bureau_Records.
  22. "Types of DNA Testing | DNA Testing | AncestryDNA® Learning Hub". www.ancestry.com. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  23. Bamshad, Michael J.; Wooding, Stephen; Watkins, W. Scott; Ostler, Christopher T.; Batzer, Mark A.; Jorde, Lynn B. (March 2003). "Human Population Genetic Structure and Inference of Group Membership". American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (3): 578–589. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1180234. PMID 12557124.
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