Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

The 1917 Russian Revolution overthrew a centuries-old regime of official antisemitism in the Russian Empire, including its Pale of Settlement.[1] However, the previous legacy of antisemitism was continued by the Soviet state, especially under Joseph Stalin. Antisemitism in the Soviet Union reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan", in which numerous Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested.[2][3] This culminated in the so-called Doctors' plot, in which a group of doctors (almost all of whom were Jewish) were subjected to a show trial for supposedly having plotted to assassinate Stalin.[4]

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History

Before the revolution
Further information: History of the Jews in Russia

Under the Tsars, Jews – who numbered approximately 5 million in the Russian Empire in the 1880s, and mostly lived in poverty – had been confined to a Pale of Settlement, where they experienced prejudice and persecution,[5] often in the form of discriminatory laws, and had often been the victims of pogroms,[1] many of which were organized by the Tsarist authorities or with their tacit approval.[5] As a result of being the victims of oppression, many Jews either emigrated from the Russian Empire or joined radical parties, such as the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks,[5] the Socialist Revolutionary Party,[6] and the Mensheviks.[7] There were also numerous antisemitic publications of the era which gained widespread circulation.[1]

After the revolution

The February Revolution and the Provisional Government

The Provisional Government cancelled all restrictions imposed on the Jews by the Tsarist regime, in a move parallel to the Jewish emancipation in Western Europe that had taken place during the 19th century abolishing Jewish disabilities.

The Bolsheviks

The October Revolution officially abolished the Pale of Settlement and other laws which regarded the Jews as an outlawed people.[1] At the same time, the Bolsheviks were strongly opposed to Judaism (and indeed to any religion) and conducted an extensive campaign to suppress the religious traditions among the Jewish population, alongside traditional Jewish culture.[8][9] In 1918, the Yevsektsiya was established to promote Marxism, secularism and Jewish assimilation into Soviet society, and supposedly bringing Communism to the Jewish masses.[10]

In August 1919 Jewish properties, including synagogues, were seized and many Jewish communities were dissolved. The anti-religious laws against all expressions of religion and religious education were being taken out on all religious groups, including the Jewish communities. Many Rabbis and other religious officials were forced to resign from their posts under the threat of violent persecution. This type of persecution continued on into the 1920s.[11] Jews were also frequently placed disproportionately on the front lines of Russian wars in the early 1900s as well as WW2. As a result, large numbers of Jews emigrated out of Russia to places like the United States. Changing their family's last name during emigration to reduce perceived risk was not uncommon.[12]

The official statements by Lenin about antisemitism were contradictory. In March 1919, he delivered a speech "On Anti-Jewish Pogroms"[13] where he denounced antisemitism as an "attempt to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants from the exploiters toward the Jews". The speech was in line with the previous condemnation of the antisemitic pogroms perpetrated by the White Army during the Russian Civil War.[14][15][16] In 1914 Lenin had said "No nationality in Russia is as oppressed and persecuted as the Jews".[17]

At the same time, Lenin wrote in his project of a directive for the Communist Party "The policies on the Ukraine" in autumn of 1919:[18]

Jews and city dwellers on the Ukraine must be taken by hedgehog-skin gauntlets,[19] sent to fight on front lines and should never be allowed on any administrative positions (except a negligible percentage, in exceptional cases, and under [our] class control).

Mass campaigns against antisemitism were conducted until early 1930s. In 1918, Lenin made a speech specifically against antisemitism. In the same year, large scale informative literature on antisemitism was published. The campaigns reached their peak from 1927 to 1930, when Soviet propaganda regarded antisemitism as being spread by enemies of the Soviet Union. Plays and films were made on the subject and public trials were held. In 1931, Stalin said in a reply to the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, "Anti-Semitism, as an extreme form of racial chauvinism, is the most dangerous vestige of cannibalism."[20]

Information campaigns against antisemitism were conducted in the Red Army and in the workplaces, and a provision forbidding the incitement of propaganda against any ethnicity became part of Soviet law.[21] The official stance of the Soviet government in 1934 was to oppose antisemitism "anywhere in the world" and claimed to express "fraternal feelings to the Jewish people", praising the Jewish contributions towards international socialism.[22]

Under Stalin
Further information: Joseph Stalin and antisemitism

Joseph Stalin emerged as leader of the Soviet Union following a power struggle with Leon Trotsky after the death of Lenin. Stalin has been accused of resorting to antisemitism in some of his arguments against Trotsky, who was of Jewish heritage. Those who knew Stalin, such as Khrushchev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews that had manifested themselves before the 1917 Revolution.[23] As early as 1907, Stalin wrote a letter differentiating between a "Jewish faction" and a "true Russian faction" in Bolshevism.[23][24] Stalin's secretary Boris Bazhanov stated that Stalin made crude antisemitic outbursts even before Lenin's death.[23][25] Stalin adopted antisemitic policies which were reinforced with his anti-Westernism.[26][note 1] Since antisemitism was associated with Nazi Germany and was officially condemned by the Soviet system, the Soviet Union and other communist states used the cover-term "anti-Zionism" for their antisemitic policies. Antisemitism, as historian, Orientalist and anthropologist Raphael Patai and geneticist Jennifer Patai Wing put it in their book The Myth of the Jewish Race, was "couched in the language of opposition to Zionism".[27] After expulsion of Trotsky, his Jewish heritage was further exploited in the form of association "A Jew is a Trotskyist, a Trotskyist is a Jew". Since 1936 in the show trial of "Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Center", the suspects, prominent Bolshevik leaders, were accused of hiding their Jewish origins under Slavic names.[28]

Antisemitism in the Soviet Union commenced openly as a campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan"[3] (a euphemism for "Jew"). In his speech titled "On Several Reasons for the Lag in Soviet Dramaturgy" at a plenary session of the board of the Soviet Writers' Union in December 1948, Alexander Fadeyev equated the cosmopolitans with the Jews.[26][note 2] In this campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan", many leading Jewish writers and artists were killed.[3] Terms like "rootless cosmopolitans", "bourgeois cosmopolitans", and "individuals devoid of nation or tribe" (all of which were codewords for Jews) appeared in newspapers.[26][note 3] The Soviet press accused the Jews of "groveling before the West", helping "American imperialism", "slavish imitation of bourgeois culture" and "bourgeois aestheticism".[26][note 4] Victimization of Jews in the USSR at the hands of the Nazis was denied, Jewish scholars were removed from the sciences, and emigration rights were denied to Jews.[29] The Stalinist antisemitic campaign ultimately culminated in the Doctors' plot in 1953. According to Patai and Patai, the Doctors' plot was "clearly aimed at the total liquidation of Jewish cultural life".[3] Communist antisemitism under Stalin shared a common characteristic with Nazi and fascist antisemitism in its belief in "Jewish world conspiracy".[30]

Soviet antisemitism extended to policy in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany. As the historian Norman Naimark has noted, officials in the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG) by 1947–48 displayed a "growing obsession" with the presence of Jews in the military administration, in particular their presence in the Cadres Department's Propaganda Administration.[31] Jews in German universities who resisted Sovietisation were characterised as 'victims of fascism' but of 'non-Aryan background' now 'lined up with the bourgeois parties'.[32]

Scholars such as Erich Goldhagen claim that following the death of Stalin, the policy of the Soviet Union towards Jews and the Jewish question became more discreet, with indirect antisemitic policies over direct physical assault.[33] Erich Goldhagen suggests that despite being famously critical of Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev did not view Stalin's antisemitic policies as "monstrous acts" or "rude violations of the basic Leninist principles of the nationality policy of the Soviet state".[34]

Under Brezhnev

Immediately following the Six-Day War in 1967 the antisemitic conditions started causing desire to emigrate to Israel for many Soviet Jews. A Jewish Ukrainian radio engineer, Boris Kochubievsky, sought to move to Israel. In a letter to Brezhnev, Kochubievsky stated:

I am a Jew. I want to live in the Jewish state. That is my right, just as it is the rights of a Ukrainian to live in the Ukraine, the right of a Russian to live in Russia, the right of a Georgian to live in Georgia. I want to live in Israel. That is my dream, that is the goal not only of my life but also of the lives of hundreds of generation that preceded me, of my ancestors who were expelled from their land. I want to my children to study in the Hebrew language. I want to read Jewish papers, I want to attend a Jewish theatre. What is wrong with that? What is my crime ...?[35]

Within the week he was called in to the KGB bureau and without questioning, was taken to a mental institution in his hometown of Kiev.[36] While this may seem as an isolated incident, the aftermath of the Six-Day War affected almost every Jew within the Soviet Union.[36] Jews who had been subject to assimilation under previous regimes were now confronted with a new sense in vigour and revival in their Jewish faith and heritage. On February 23, 1979, a six-page article was distributed throughout the cities of Moscow and Leningrad, which criticized Brezhnev and seven other individuals for being "Zionist".[37] The article contained traces of deep-rooted antisemitism in which the anonymous author, a member of the Russian Liberation Organization, set out ways to identify Zionists; these included "hairy chest and arms", "shifty eyes", and a "hook-like nose".[38]

On February 22, 1981, in a speech, which lasted over 5 hours, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev denounced anti-Semitism in the Soviet Union.[39] While Stalin and Lenin had much of the same in various statements and speeches, this was the first time that a high-ranking Soviet official had done so in front of the entire Party.[39] Brezhnev acknowledged that anti-Semitism existed within the Eastern Bloc and saw that many different ethnic groups existed whose "requirements" were not being met.[39] For decades, people of different ethnic, or religious backgrounds were assimilated into Soviet society and denied the ability or resources to get the education or practice their religion as they had previously done.[39] Brezhnev made it official Soviet Policy to provide these ethnic groups with these "requirements" and cited a fear of the "emergence of inter-ethnic tensions" as the reason.[39] The announcement of the policy was followed with a generic, but significant Party message;

The CPSU [Communist Party of the Soviet Union] has fought and will always fight resolutely against such phenomena [inter-ethnic tensions] which are alien to the nature of socialism as chauvinism or nationalism, against any nationalistic aberrations such as, let us say, anti-Semitism or Zionism. We are against tendencies aimed at artificial erosion of national characteristics. But to the same extent, we consider impermissible their artificial exaggeration. It is the sacred duty of the party to educate the working people in the spirit of Soviet patriotism and socialist internationalism, of a proud feeling of belonging to a single great Soviet motherland.[40][41]

While to most, the issue of anti-Semitism seemed to be dropped very casually and almost accidentally, it was very much calculated and planned, as was everything else the Party did.[40] At this time the Soviet Union was feeling pressure from around the world to solve many human rights violations that were taking place within their borders, and the statement responded to the inquiries of countries such as Australia and Belgium.[40] While the Party seemed to be taking a hard stance against anti-Semitism, the fact remained that anti-Semitic propaganda had long been present in the Soviet Union, making it extremely difficult to solve the problems right away.[40] Furthermore, Jewish organizations in Washington D.C. were calling attention to the problems of Soviet Jewry to American leaders.[40]

A major stride was made in helping the Soviet Jews on October 18, 1974, when Senator Henry Jackson, Henry Kissinger, along with Senator Jacob Javits, and Congressman Charles Vanik met to discuss the finalization of the "Jackson–Vanik amendment" which had been in limbo in the US Congress for nearly a year.[42] After the meeting, Jackson told reporters that a "historic understanding in the area of human rights" had been met and while he did not "comment on what the Russians have done ... there [had] been a complete turnaround here on the basic points".[42] The amendment set out to reward the Soviet Union for letting some Soviet Jews leave the country.

While the problem seemed closer to being solved, the Kremlin reacted predictably by taking a stand against allowing their emigration and foreign policy be dictated over by the Jews in Washington.[43] Andrei Gromyko, the Minister of Foreign Affairs passed along a letter to Kissenger which stated that "we resolutely decline such an interpretation", in regards to the opinion that this piece of legislation would lead to more "Soviet citizens" being allowed to leave compared to previous years.[43] While the bill was still passed by an overwhelming margin, the Kremlin felt attacked. Therefore, when the United States placed an official limit on the amount of credit that would be allowed to the Soviet Union, it pushed the problem of Soviet Jewry to the forefront of issues needing resolution between the two super powers.[44]

See also

Notes
  1. Konstantin Azadovskii, an editorial board member of the cultural journal Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, and Boris Egorov, a research fellow at Saint Petersburg State University, in an article titled From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism published in the Journal of Cold War Studies writes "Stalin's policies of anti- Westernism and anti-Semitism reinforced one another and joined together in the notion of cosmopolitanism."
  2. Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov in an article titled From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism published in the Journal of Cold War Studies writes "In 1949, however, the attacks on cosmopolitans (kosmopolity) acquired a markedly anti-Semitic character. The very term cosmopolitan, which began to appear ever more frequently in newspaper headlines, was increasingly paired in the lexicon of the time with the word rootless (bezrodnye). The practice of equating cosmopolitans with Jews was heralded by a speech delivered in late December 1948 by Anatolii Fadeev at a plenary session of the board of the Soviet Writers' Union. His speech, titled "On Several Reasons for the Lag in Soviet Dramaturgy," was followed a month later by a prominent editorial in Pravda, "On an Anti-Patriotic Group of Theater Critics." The "anti- patriotic group of theater critics" consisted of Aleksandr Borshchagovskii, Abram Gurvich, Efim Kholodov, Yulii Yuzovskii, and a few others also of Jewish origin. In all subsequent articles and speeches the anti-patriotism of theater and literary critics (and later of literary scholars) was unequivocally connected with their Jewish nationality."
  3. Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov in an article titled From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism published in the Journal of Cold War Studies writes "Terms such as rootless cosmopolitans, bourgeois cosmopolitans, and individuals devoid of nation or tribe continually appeared in newspaper articles. All of these were codewords for Jews and were understood as such by people at that time."
  4. Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov in an article titled From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism published in the Journal of Cold War Studies writes "Of the many crimes attributed to Jews/cosmopolitans in the Soviet press, the most malevolent were "groveling before the West," aiding "American imperialism," "slavish imitation of bourgeois culture," and the catch-all misdeed of "bourgeois aestheticism."

References
  1. Trotsky, Leon (May 1941). "Thermidor and Anti-Semitism". The New International. VII (4). Retrieved 15 October 2016: Originally written 22 February 1937
  2. Azadovskii, Konstantin; Boris Egorov (2002). "From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism: Stalin and the Impact of the "Anti-Cosmopolitan" Campaigns on Soviet Culture". Journal of Cold War Studies. 4 (1): 66–80. doi:10.1162/152039702753344834. ISSN 1520-3972. S2CID 57565840. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
  3. Patai & Patai 1989.
  4. ""Soviet Union": The Doctors' plot 1953 - Stalin's last purge plan". Encyclopaedia Judaica. 6. 1971. p. 144. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010: See column 144.
  5. Corrin, Chris; Feihn, Terry (31 July 2015). AQA A-level History Tsarist and Communist Russia: 1855-1964. Hachette UK; Hodder Education; Dynamic Learning. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9781471837807. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
  6. Pinkus, Benjamin (26 January 1990). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6.
  7. Albert S. Lindemann (1997). Esau's Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews. Cambridge University Press. p. 429. ISBN 978-0-521-79538-8. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
  8. Pipes, page 363, quoted from book by Nora Levin, The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917, New York, 1988, page 57: "[The mission of the Yevesektsiya was to] destruction of traditional Jewish life, the Zionist movement, and Hebrew culture"
  9. See: USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928), USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941), USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964), USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1990)
  10. Pipes, Richard (1993). Russia under the Bolshevik regime. A.A. Knopf. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-394-50242-7.
  11. "Russia". Encyclopaedia Judaica. 17. Keter Publishing House Ltd. pp. 531–553.
  12. "Russia Virtual Jewish History Tour". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  13. Lenin's March 1919 speech "On Anti-Jewish Pogroms" (text, audio )
  14. Benjamin Pinkus. The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  15. Naomi Blank. "Redefining the Jewish Question from Lenin to Gorbachev: Terminology or Ideology". In: Yaacov Ro'i, editor. Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union. Routledge, 1995.
  16. William Korey. Russian Anti-semitism, Pamyat, and the Demonology of Zionism. Routledge, 1995.
  17. Rogger, Hans (January 1986). Jewish Policies and Right-wing Politics in Imperial Russia. ISBN 9780520045965.
  18. Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, Time of darkness, Moscow, 2003, ISBN 5-85646-097-9, page 207 (Russian: Яковлев А. Сумерки. Москва: Материк 2003 г.; The letter includes a footnote by Lenin who instructed to "use a politically correct wording, like "Jewish petty bourgeoisie"
  19. Russian expression: "Ezhovye rukavitsy", this can be also translated as "ruled by iron fist"
  20. Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–87.
  21. Dmitri Volkogonov, Lenin: A New Biography, Free Press, 1994
  22. Skolnik, Fred; Michael Berenbaum, eds. (2007). "Communism". Encyclopaedia Judaica (PDF). 5 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-02-865928-2. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
  23. Ro'i, Yaacov, Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-7146-4619-9, pp. 103-6.
  24. Montefiore, Simon Sebag, Young Stalin, Random House, Inc., 2008, ISBN 1-4000-9613-8, p. 165.
  25. Kun, Miklós, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait, Central European University Press, 2003, ISBN 963-9241-19-9, p. 287.
  26. Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov (2002), "From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism", Journal of Cold War Studies, 4:1 (Winter 2002): 66–80
  27. Patai & Patai 1989, p. 178.
  28. "Anti-Semitism in Russia. Russian disinformation and inspiration of anti-Semitism – Fundacja INFO OPS Polska" (in Polish). Retrieved 2020-06-25.
  29. Horowitz, Irving Louis (2007). "Cuba, Castro and Anti-Semitism" (PDF). Current Psychology. 26 (3–4): 183–190. doi:10.1007/s12144-007-9016-4. ISSN 0737-8262. OCLC 9460062. S2CID 54911894. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
  30. Laqueur 2006, p. 177
  31. Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 1995, 338
  32. Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 1995, 444
  33. Goldhagen 1987, p. 389
  34. Goldhagen 1987, p. 390
  35. Beckerman, Gal (2010). When They Come For Us, We'll All Be Gone. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 103.
  36. Beckerman, Gal (2010). When They Come For Us We'll All Be Gone. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 103.
  37. Korey, William (1984). Robert O. Freedman (ed.). Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 31.
  38. Korey, William. Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism. p. 31.
  39. Korey, William. Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism. p. 29.
  40. Korey, William. Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism. p. 30.
  41. "none". Povada. February 23, 1981. p. 38.
  42. Beckerman, Gal. When They Come For Us, We'll All Be Gone. p. 305.
  43. Beckerman, Gal. When They Come For Us, We'll All Be Gone. p. 306.
  44. Beckerman, Gal. When They Come For Us, We'll All Be Gone. pp. 308–310.
  • McLellan, David (1980), Marx before Marxism, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6.
  • Laqueur, Walter (2006), The Changing Face of Anti-Semitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9.
  • Griffin, Roger; Feldman, Matthew (2004), Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science, V, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-29020-3.
  • Mach, Zdzisław (2007), "Constructing Identities in a post-Communist Society: Ethnic, national, and European", Identity and Networks: Fashioning Gender and Ethnicity Across Cultures, Berghahn Books, ISBN 978-1-84545-162-2.
  • Patai, Raphael; Patai, Jennifer (1989). The Myth of the Jewish Race. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-1948-3. Retrieved 16 October 2016..
  • Goldhagen, Erich (1987), "Communism and Anti-Semitism", The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-010170-6.
  • Possony, Stefan T. (1976), "Anti-Semitism in the Russian Orbit", Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey, 2, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, ISBN 978-90-247-1781-1.
  • Busky, Donald F. (2002), Communism in History and Theory: From Utopian Socialism to the Fall of the Soviet Union, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-275-97748-1.
  • Hampsher-Monk, Iain (1992), A History of Modern Political Thought: Major Political Thinkers from Hobbes to Marx, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-55786-147-4.
  • March, Luke (2002), "Evaluating the CPRF's ideology: backwards to socialism?", The Communist Party in Post-Soviet Russia, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-6044-1.
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