Barbuda

There is a widespread but disputed belief, shared by some Barbudans, that the Codringtons set up a human stock farm on Barbuda for the purpose of breeding the strongest, tallest enslaved people.[8][9] An article in the Annals of the New York Academy of Science has disputed this, stating that the Codringtons considered using Barbuda as a nursery, where slave children would have been raised to work on Antiguan plantations, but this plan was never realized.[10] Other sources indicate that slaves were, in fact, an export commodity[11] but this was probably due to natural population growth since no new slaves had arrived on the island since the mid-1700s.[12]

In any event, the island was certainly an exporter of slaves. An estimate in 1977 by Lowenthal and Clark indicated that between 1779 and 1834, 172 slaves were exported. Most were taken to Antigua, but 37 went to the Leeward and Windward islands, and some went to the southern US. Several slave rebellions took place on the island, with the most serious in 1834-1835.[13]

Britain emancipated slaves in most of its colonies in 1834, but that did not include Barbuda, so the island freed its own slaves at that time. For some years afterward, the freed slaves had little opportunity of survival on their own because of limited agricultural land and the lack of available credit to buy some. Therefore, they continued to work on the plantations for nominal wages or lived in shantytowns and worked as occasional labourers.[14] Sugarcane production remained the primary economy for over a century. Effective trade unions were not formed until the 1930s.[12]

The first map of Barbuda was made in the second half of the 18th century. At that time there were substantial buildings in the Highland area, a castle in Codrington, a fort on the river, now known as the Martello Tower, and houses at Palmetto Point, Coco Point, and Castle Hill. The map shows eight catching pens for holding captured runaway slaves, indicating that this was a serious problem. There were several defensive cannon batteries around the island perimeter, as well as a large plantation in the Meadow and Guava area and another large plantation in the Highlands.[13]

The Barbuda Land Act of 2007 establishes that the citizens of Barbuda communally own the land.[15] The act specifies that residents must provide consent for major development projects on the island.[16] The Government of Antigua and Barbuda passed the act on January 17, 2008.[17]

One of the most devastating hurricanes to strike the northern Leeward Islands in the 20th century, Hurricane Luis, a Category 4 storm, caused very extensive destruction to Barbuda in September 1995. Most houses were damaged or destroyed, with three deaths, 165 injuries, and power and water system disruptions. The hurricane left over 300 homeless; many lived in shelters for months. Estimated cost of rebuilding ranged from $100 million to $350 million.[18] Not all damaged buildings were replaced, and in early 2013, only two very expensive hotels were operating in addition to a few cottages that were for rent. In fact, there were very few facilities for tourists.[19] A report in early 2017 confirmed that there were still only two hotels; the primary attractions were the pristine beaches.[20] Many of the accommodations listed on the TripAdvisor page for Barbuda were actually in Antigua.[21]

Satellite images of Antigua and Barbuda from August 21, 2017, and September 8, 2017, illustrating the damage caused by Hurricane Irma to Barbuda. The browning of the island was a result of extreme wind damage to foliage and desiccation of vegetation due to sea spray.[22]

22 years after Hurricane Luis, Hurricane Irma caused catastrophic damage when it made landfall on the island on 6 September 2017. Prime Minister Gaston Browne stated that the Category 5 hurricane had destroyed 95% of the structures and vehicles on the island.[23] Initial estimates showed that at least 60% of the island's residents were homeless because of the disaster.[24] All communications with Barbuda were down for a time; the storm had destroyed most of the communications system.[25]

On 8 September 2017, the government began to evacuate the entire island (with residents moved to Antigua) in anticipation of the Category 4 Hurricane Jose, which was approaching from the east.[26] Nearly 1,800 residents were evacuated to Antigua;[27] some were accommodated in the Sir Vivian Richards cricket stadium.[28] A hurricane warning for Jose was issued for several islands, including Barbuda.[29][27]

On 14 September, Ronald Sanders, Ambassador to the United States, described the situation on Barbuda: "There is no electricity there, there is no potable water anymore, there is no structure in which people can survive. We have a mammoth task on our hands."[5] He also stated this is the first time in 300 years that the island has not had a single living person on it.[30] Sanders said, "We are a small island community — the gross domestic product of Antigua is $1 billion a year. We cannot afford to take on this responsibility by ourselves. Barbuda is not just a disaster, it's a humanitarian crisis. We are hopeful that the international community will come to our aid, not because we're begging for something we want, but because we're begging for something that is needed."[5]

The United States Agency for International Development confirmed its commitment to provide coordination between the government and aid organizations; it also sent a Disaster Assistance Response Team.[31] On 8 September, the first of three cargo planes arrived in Antigua from the US, with over 120,000 pounds of relief supplies for Barbudans. The cost was covered by the Government of Antigua and Barbuda and with donations from Martin Franklyn and the Coleman Company in the US.[32]

An estimate published by Time indicated that over $100 million would be required to rebuild homes and infrastructure. In a statement, Sanders stated that the reconstruction may cost up to $300 million. Philmore Mullin, Director of Barbuda's National Office of Disaster Services, said that "all critical infrastructure and utilities are non-existent – food supply, medicine, shelter, electricity, water, communications, waste management... Public utilities need to be rebuilt in their entirety... It is optimistic to think anything can be rebuilt in six months ... In my 25 years in disaster management, I have never seen something like this."[28]

A report in April 2018 indicated that many of the few people living on the island were making do in tents; some government buildings were still being repaired.[33] By that time, water and electricity were available in government buildings, the police station, the hospital and the post office in Codrington. Prime minister Gaston Browne said there were plans to build a new runway for jets at the airport but no specifics had been released.[34]

A house that was badly damaged by the hurricane

By February 2019, an estimated 75% of residents had returned from Antigua.[35] Both China[36] and the European Union[37] funded rebuilding efforts which restored parts of the residential housing. Plans by Prime Minister Gaston Browne to overturn the century-old Barbudan communal land ownership by allowing residents to purchase land they occupy has been criticised as promoting "disaster capitalism".[35][38] Seen in relation with the planned construction of a new international airport,[39] critics voiced concerns that the main benefactors would not be the local populace, but international companies aiming to establish mass tourism.[35][40]