Chicago Woman's Club

The Chicago Woman's Club was formed in 1876 by women in Chicago who were interested in "self and social improvement."[1] The club was notable for creating educational opportunities in the Chicago region and helped create the first juvenile court in the United States.[1] The group was primarily made up of wealthy and middle-class white women, with physicians, lawyers and university professors playing "prominent roles."[2] The club often worked towards social and educational reform in Chicago. It also hosted talks by prominent women, including artists and suffragists.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

Founder and Presidents, Chicago Woman's Club.

The Chicago Woman's Club was responsible for creating the first Protective Agency in the United States that dealt with assault and rape of women. The group was active in reform of the Cook County Insane Hospital and of other health reforms. They helped establish the first kindergartens and nursery schools in Chicago. Later, the club became involved with both the woman's suffrage movement and also with promoting birth control.

The club met until 1999, when the group dissolved.[11] Assets of the club went to support scholarships and other philanthropic endeavors.[11]

History
Reading Room of the Chicago Woman's Club.

The Chicago Woman's Club was first formed in 1876,[2][12] on May 17.[13] In 1885, the club incorporated,[14] and changed the name officially to the Chicago Woman's Club.[2] The founder of the group was Caroline Brown, who suggested to friends that they form a group in order to socialize and associate.[12] By 1877, the club was written up in the Woman's Journal and had approximately thirty members, many of which were active in social reform and in literary and philanthropic circles.[15] The kind of self-improvement study that the club was involved with was "often as demanding as a first year college curriculum."[16] The education provided by the club was, at the time, one of the only ways most women could pursue a "post graduate education."[17] The Chicago Woman's Club organized itself into six main committees: Reform, Philanthropy, Home, Education, Art and literature and Philosophy and science.[18] Each member of the club was required to serve on at least one committee.[13] The club's officers were not all members of the Chicago Woman's Club. Instead, half of the officers were members and the other half came out of other Chicago club organizations.[19] Membership was exclusive and new members had to be sponsored by current members, "and their acceptance into the club was often dependent on the importance of their sponsor."[20]

The members of the club initially met at Brown's house.[15] In 1877, they rented rooms in the Chicago Literary Club on Monroe Street.[21] Later, they started to meet at the Palmer House,[22] and Grand Pacific.[23] In 1894, the club had moved into the Potter Building, and to mark the occasion, they held a reception, where for the first time men were also invited to attend.[14] Later, in 1916, the club would vote against allowing an "Associate Membership" for men.[24] The club had a new location on Michigan Avenue in 1929, and also during that year again considered creating an "Associate Membership" for men.[25] The building on Michigan Ave. was six stories high and designed by Holabird & Roche along with engineer Frank E. Brown. This building is now part of Columbia College.[26] The group increased from 30 to 60 members in 1881.[23] By 1894, there were 600 members.[14] In 1896, the club had increased to 730 members.[27] In 1901, there were 900 members,[28] increasing to 1,000 by 1906,[29] and to 1,200 members in 1921.[30] Annually, the Chicago Woman's Club produced a large yearbook which described the activities of the club over the past year.[31] The club's motto was "Humani nihil a me alienum puto."[32] On May 25, 1892, they adopted the official colors for the club of ivory white and gold.[33]

In 1876, the club admitted the first Jewish women, Henriette and Hannah Solomon.[16] The first African American member of the club was Fannie Barrier Williams.[2] She went through a difficult approval process which caused dissension in the club.[34][35][36] In 1895, the club voted not to exclude anyone based on race.[37] She was finally made a member in 1896.[38] In 1894, a club for African American women which was based on the Chicago Woman's Club was organized.[39]

In 1901, the club faced a difficult time when an anonymous letter was sent which accused member, Mrs. Robert Farson, of "financial dishonesty."[28] Farson, and others accused, demanded an investigation.[40] Handwriting analysis indicated that the person sending the letter was "No.75," a designation that would have been obvious to club members.[40] Other possible members may have been those designated as "70 and 76."[41] The discovery committee later decided that the letter writer was Alice Bradford Wiles,[42] who both disputed the accusation and threatened to sue the club for "slander and damages."[43]

Reform
The Auditorium of the Woman's Club of Chicago.

The Chicago Woman's Club started engaging with various social reforms around the mid 80s.[19] Club members were moved by families who endured difficult working conditions and by children who were forced to work for their families.[44] Starting in January 1896, some club members held monthly meetings to study laws that affected or were about women and children.[45]

The Chicago Woman's Club became involved in the Cook County Insane Hospital, where they supported Delia Howe become the assistant physician.[46] The Chicago Women's Club also made the case that further appointments should be women after Howe left and asked them to appoint and maintain Harriet C. B. Alexander to the open position.[46][47][48] The club continued to work towards improvements for female inmates at the hospital,[49] conducted visits and monitored the status of the hospital, reporting on violations.[50][51] They even submitted in 1886, a proposed amendment to the laws for the care of the insane and common criminals.[52] Most of these duties were carried out by the club's Reform Committee.[49][50] In 1893, the Reform Committee was still involved with helping to improve the hospital.[53] It had secured enough food and clothing for those inside the Insane Hospital by 1904.[54]

The Chicago Women's Club was also involved with asking for a general hospital to treat those with "infectious diseases."[55] The club worked towards the establishment of such a hospital for many years.[56] The Reform Committee also worked to create a Children's Hospital Society of Chicago.[54] In 1909, the club suggested a way to improve medical staffing at the county jail.[57]

The Chicago Woman's Club was active in other health-related issues. The club promoted advertisements against spitting in the city of Chicago,[58] and were also in support of anti-cigarette legislation.[59] The club pledged $11,343 to support the cancer seal campaign in 1930. The club was an early promoter of cancer education.[60]

They were involved with helping to appoint a night matron at the jail in 1884.[61] The night matron would look after women and children who were prisoners in the jail.[62] Chicago Women's Club members, Ellen Henrotin and Sara Hackett Stevenson, were instrumental in creating a Protective Agency for Women and Children in 1886.[2][63] This Protective Agency was the first in the country to protect wives who were victims of assault and rape.[19] The club provided legal aid for women facing various issues, provided lawyers to those who could not afford them, and often "appeared in court on behalf of rape victims."[64] In 1897, the Protective Agency merged with the Bureau of Justice, but "the women asked for and received sole jurisdiction over the cases affecting women and children."[65] The Protective Agency again moved into a different merger with the Legal Aid Society of Chicago in 1905.[65] Also in 1905, the club petitioned Illinois state about a proposed amendment to protect children under the crimes act.[66]

The work of committee members such as Julia Lathrop, Jane Addams and Lucy Flower influenced the creation of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law of 1899, creating the first juvenile court in the country.[1] The club helped pay the salaries of the probation officers who would later work in the court.[67] Prior to creating a juvenile justice system, "bad kids" in Chicago were arrested on spurious charges and left in jails with adults with no legal recourse.[11] In 1929, the Chicago Woman's Club, along with other organizations funded a study of "behavior problems of delinquent boys."[68]

In 1915, Rachelle Yarros convinced the Chicago Woman's Club to create a birth control committee.[69] By 1916, the club was addressing issues of birth control.[70] The discussion of contraceptives was controversial,[71] and also could have resulted in the arrest of those promoting it, since laws were still on the books preventing the dissemination of information about birth control.[70] The club also held a birth control conference,[72] where James A. Field presented information on the subject.[73] Yarros was appointed by the Chicago Woman's Club as the chair of the Chicago Citizen's Committee which created the Illinois Birth Control League.[74] The league opened various clinics in Chicago in the 1920s, despite laws against allowing information about birth control in the city.[75]

The Chicago Woman's Club was also involved in the woman's suffrage movement. In 1894, the group created the Chicago Political Equality League.[76] The Political Equality League was considered a "conservative" group and it worked to "dispel the bogy of the anti-suffragists, to show the world that one can be a believer in votes for women and still be essentially feminine, be charming perhaps, and agreeable."[77] The group also hosted talks about suffrage,[3] and had suffragists, such as Susan B. Anthony, speak at the club.[5]

Environmental concerns were also important to the club. Members spoke out against the killing of wild birds for the feathers used in fashionable women's clothing.[78][79] In 1905, they supported a measure to preserve natural areas in Illinois.[80]

Education

The Chicago Woman's Club was involved in many educational efforts. Some of these, like advocating for children's schooling in prisons, were tied into their other reform efforts. Early on, the club petitioned Mayor Roche to appoint women to vacancies in the Board of Education in Chicago in 1887.[81] Later, the club nominated five women to the school board in 1890.[82] Ada Celeste Sweet was appointed to the Board of Education in 1892, and the club urged the confirmation of her appointment.[83] As an example to the Chicago Board of Education, in 1898 the club cleaned one of the schools from "attic to basement" as an example of what cleanliness and sanitation in a school building should look like.[84] In 1916, the club urged the school board to choose teachers based on educational merit alone.[85] Club member, Lucy Flower, lobbied successfully for Illinois to have a compulsory education law.[86]

The Chicago Woman's Club also helped, along with Rose Haas Alschuler and her cousin Charlotte Kuh, to set up the first public nursery school in the United States, which was affiliated with the Chicago Board of Education.[87] The club was also the first to provide funds for a kindergarten in the public schools.[88] In 1905, the club created a fellowship for the John H. Hamline school which would provide funds for parents' and children's clubs.[89]

The Chicago Woman's Club also supported education for the blind beyond public schooling.[90] In 1906, members of the club taught the visually impaired in their homes, teaching Braille, shorthand, typewriting and weaving.[91] The work had grown so much, that additional funds were needed and a proposed bill was introduced to provide it to the teachers.[91]

In 1889, the club "adopted" Norwood Park School, donating funds and soliciting more for the school.[92] The school was both an orphanage for over 300 homeless boys and a training school.[93] The club also helped the School Children's Aid Society by donating time and "suitable new clothing" for poor students so they could attend school.[94] The club also created a school for boys who were inmates at the Chicago common jail.[95] The Chicago Women's Club ensured that boys in the county jail had a Thanksgiving dinner in 1898.[96]

In 1885, the club began a training school for domestic servants.[97] The club continued this work, creating a school, developing scholarships, providing housing for students and creating an employment agency.[98] In 1900, the club also advocated for boys to learn how to cook in public schools.[99] The idea also included teaching boys other domestic sciences, so that when they grew up, they would "make good husbands, able to help their wives in domestic economy."[100] Vocational classes for interested students, which included scholarships, were started by the Chicago Woman's Club.[101]

In 1892, the club helped finance women's dormitories at the University of Chicago.[102] The dormitories cost $280,000.[103] In 1897, the Chicago Woman's Club helped raise money to add to the Egyptian collection at the Chicago University.[104]

In 1898, the club created an information center for students, providing resources and information for 50 cents an inquiry. The club also kept records about what kinds of questions were asked, and encouraged and took only serious inquiries into a given topic.[105]

Labor issues

In addition to working on reform and education, the club supported worker's rights. During the World's Colombian Exposition, the Chicago Woman's Club urged those planning the event to stay open on Sundays in order to allow the working class to have the opportunity to visit.[106][107] The Chicago Woman's Club also supported conferences like "Women in Modern Industrialism" which reported on the status of women in different professions.[108] Catherine Waugh McCulloch spoke affirmatively on the topic of whether married women should be involved in business at the Women in Modern Industrialism conference.[109]

In 1894, the club helped secure 200 jobs for women and girls.[110] Later the club started the Women's Emergency Association, which helped find employment for about 1,500 individuals.[111] The organization was credited by The Daily Republican for "influencing all the laws for the improvement of the conditions surrounding the working women and children of Illinois."[112] The Chicago Woman's Club also developed an Employment Bureau.[113][114]

The club also worked with the Women's Trade Union and helped boycott factories where conditions for workers were poor.[115] The club voted to send representatives to speak on behalf of clerks who were overworked in various stores, and to advocate for half-holidays for them.[116] In 1912, the club created a committee to investigate women's working conditions in the industrial sector and had as its stated goal to create a minimum wage for working women.

Notable members
Presidents of the Chicago Woman's Club.

Many notable women were members of the club. Physician, Sara Hackett Stevenson was president from 1892 to 1894.[117] Ada Celeste Sweet was elected president in 1894.[111] Novelist and preacher, Celia Parker Woolley,[118] reformer Lucy Flower,[119] Lydia Avery Coonley,[120] and Julia Holmes Smith,[121] also served as presidents. Many of the presidents of the Chicago Woman's Club had also been members of the Fortnightly Club.[122]

References

Citations
  1. Knupfer, Anne Meis (2005). "Clubs, Women's". The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago. The Newberry Library. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  2. Schultz, Rima Lunin. "Women's History". Chicago Metropolitan History Fair. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  3. "Women's Kingdom". Chicago Daily Tribune. 20 October 1883. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  4. "Mrs. S. G. Pratt will read her paper on". The Inter Ocean. 15 June 1885. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  5. "Susan B. Has Had Enough". The Saint Paul Globe. 28 June 1888. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  6. "Chicago Woman's Club". The Inter Ocean. 28 June 1888. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  7. "About Women". The Atlanta Constitution. 12 May 1889. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  8. "A Cominz Musicale". The Inter Ocean. 25 January 1891. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  9. "The Woman's Club". The Inter Ocean. 19 May 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  10. Bradwell, J.B. (24 June 1905). "Chicago Woman's Suffragists Honor Miss Susan B. Anthony". Chicago Daily Tribune. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
  11. Granger, Bill (1 November 1999). "Woman's Club Deeds Will Not Be Forgotten". The Daily Herald. Retrieved 20 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  12. "Founder of the Chicago Woman's Club". Chicago Tribune. 24 May 1903. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  13. Croly 1898, p. 62.
  14. "Opens Its New Home". Chicago Daily Tribune. 4 October 1894. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  15. "The Chicago Woman's Club". The Inter Ocean. 24 February 1877. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  16. "Hannah Greenebaum Solomon". Women of Valor. Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  17. Henrotin, Mrs. Charles (16 January 1904). "Superiority of Women's Clubs". St. Tammany Farmer. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via newspapers.com.
  18. "Women's World and Work – The Chicago Woman's Club is one of the largest and most successful..." The Times-Picayune. 16 October 1887. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  19. Pleck 1983, p. 465.
  20. Clapp 1998, p. 23.
  21. Frank & Jerome 1916, p. 17.
  22. "City in Brief". The Inter Ocean. 3 November 1881. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  23. "Around Town Points". The Inter Ocean. 3 February 1881. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  24. "Honor to Mrs. Cooley". Chicago Daily Tribune. 30 April 1916. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  25. Nangle, Roberta (27 October 1929). "Chicago Woman's Club Plans Busy Winter". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  26. "Chicago Woman's Club". Chicagology. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  27. "Woman's Club Election". Chicago Daily Tribune. 21 May 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  28. "Trouble Arising from an Accusation of Anonymous Letter Writing Causes Serious Dissension" (PDF). The New York Times. 28 December 1901. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  29. "Mrs. Jessie Bolte, Famous as a Chicago Club Woman". Star Tribune. 10 June 1906. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  30. "At the Rainbow's End". Chicago Daily Tribune. 3 April 1921. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  31. "A Typical Club". The Pantagraph. 10 July 1900. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  32. Croly 1898, p. 63.
  33. Frank & Jerome 1916, p. 18.
  34. "Mrs. Henrotin, the President of the Gen-". The New York Times. 23 December 1894. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  35. Field, Kate (12 January 1895). "Color Versus Intelligence". Chicago Daily Tribune. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  36. "The Color Question". Harrisburg Daily Independent. 5 February 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  37. "Against Race and Color Lines". Chicago Daily Tribune. 24 January 1895. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  38. "Black Bats White". The Salt Lake Tribune. 24 January 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  39. "Club of Colored Women is Organized". Chicago Daily Tribune. 18 February 1894. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  40. "Anonymous Letter Up Again". Chicago Daily Tribune. 20 December 1901. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  41. "Letter Writer Still Unknown". The Inter Ocean. 28 December 1901. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  42. "Handwriting Experts Differ" (PDF). The New York Times. 29 December 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  43. "Squabble in Woman's Club". The Times. 29 December 1901. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  44. Clapp 1998, p. 31.
  45. Clapp 1998, p. 38.
  46. "Physician at the County Hospital". The Inter Ocean. 23 January 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  47. "Dr. Delia Howe". The Columbus Journal. 18 February 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  48. "A couple of ladies representing the". Sterling Standard. 20 August 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  49. "The Cook County Insane Asylum". The Inter Ocean. 17 October 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  50. "If one-tenth of what Dr. Kiernan said of". The Inter Ocean. 21 October 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  51. "The County Insane". Chicago Daily Tribune. 31 October 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  52. "The Woman's Club". The Inter Ocean. 21 December 1886. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  53. "Work of the Chicago Woman's Club". Santa Cruz Sentinel. 6 September 1893. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  54. "Chicago Woman's Club". The Oregon Daily Journal. 23 January 1904. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  55. "The Chicago Woman's Club has been". Shenandoah Herald. 25 March 1892. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  56. "The Chicago Woman's Club has been agitat-". The Sun. 10 January 1892. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  57. "For New Jail Medical Staff". Chicago Daily Tribune. 13 January 1909. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  58. "Through the efforts of the Chicago". Harrisburg Daily Independent. 9 May 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  59. "Approve of the Bill". The Inter Ocean. 16 March 1897. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  60. "Chicago Woman's Club Pledges $11,343 for Fight Against Cancer". Chicago Tribune. 13 March 1930. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  61. "The County Board". Chicago Daily Tribune. 16 April 1884. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  62. Clapp 1998, p. 27-28.
  63. "The formation of a society having for its". The Inter Ocean. 27 March 1886. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  64. Pleck 1983, p. 466.
  65. Pleck 1983, p. 467.
  66. "City Catholic Church Notes". The Inter Ocean. 5 February 1905. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  67. Getis 2000, p. 110.
  68. Getis 2000, p. 84.
  69. Flanagan, Maureen. "Feminist Movements". Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago Historical Society. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  70. "Club Women To Defy Law and Preach Birth Control". The Denver Post. 29 September 1916. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  71. "Protests Move to Curb Birth". Chicago Daily Tribune. 3 January 1917. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  72. "Her Unborn Child". The Evening News. 25 May 1917. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  73. Page, Grace A. (February 1917). "Chicago". The Birth Control Review. 1 (1): 9.
  74. Haslett, Diane C. (2001). "Rachelle Slobodinsky Yarros". Urban Experience in Chicago: Hull-House and Its Neighborhoods, 1889-1963. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  75. "Chicago Ordinance is Named Against Birth Control". The Catholic Advance. 8 November 1924. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  76. Flanagan, Maureen A. "Suffrage". The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago. The Newberry Library. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  77. Squire, Belle (18 September 1910). "Recent Growth of Suffrage Movement in Chicago Indicated by the Many 'Equal Rights' Clubs". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  78. "Chicago Women in Behalf of Birds". The St Johnsbury Caledonian. 16 April 1897. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  79. "A Black Canvas Frock, With Satin Bolero". The National Tribune. 29 April 1897. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  80. "Outer Park Act Gets Hard Jolts". Chicago Daily Tribune. 26 October 1905. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  81. "The petition of the Chicago Woman's". The Inter Ocean. 18 May 1887. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  82. "World's Fair and Public Schools". Chicago Tribune. 7 June 1890. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  83. "Urge Miss Sweet's Confirmation". Chicago Daily Tribune. 22 September 1892. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  84. "Chicago Woman's Club's Lesson". The Daily Republican. 17 May 1898. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  85. "Chicago Woman's Club Opposes Loeb Rule 2". Chicago Daily Tribune. 15 October 1916. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  86. Clapp 1998, p. 40.
  87. Bornstein, Sandra K. "Rose Haas Alschuler". Jewish Women's Archives. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
  88. Stevenson, Mrs. Adlai (18 May 1907). "Women and Club Culture". Concordia Blade-Empire. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  89. "Founds a School Fellowship". Chicago Daily Tribune. 27 April 1905. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  90. "Chicago Woman's Club Plans Educational Work for Blind". Chicago Daily Tribune. 29 March 1908. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  91. "Real Help for the Unfortunate". The Inter Ocean. 2 January 1911. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
  92. "No title". The Inter Ocean. 25 April 1889. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com. With characteristic generosity and energy the Chicago Women's Club... Cite uses generic title (help)
  93. "Illinois Industrial Training School". Chicago Tribune. 1 February 1890. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  94. "Children Aid One Another". The Inter Ocean. 1 January 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  95. "A Strange School". The Daily Republican. 11 January 1897. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  96. "Woman's Clubs Visit Jail". Chicago Daily Tribune. 25 November 1898. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  97. "Grappling With a Problem". The Baltimore Sun. 9 October 1885. Retrieved 9 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  98. "Would Train Girls for Work". The Indianapolis Star. 4 January 1904. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  99. "Want Boys to be Cooks". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 8 March 1900. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  100. "Domestic Science for Boys". The Baltimore Sun. 9 March 1900. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  101. Austrian, Delia (26 July 1917). "How Chicago Schools Help Boys and Girls to Good Jobs". The Journal of Education. 86 (4): 94. doi:10.1177/002205741708600406. JSTOR 42877454. S2CID 189457379.
  102. "Given an Equal Chance With Men". Chicago Daily Tribune. 2 October 1892. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  103. "The Chicago Woman's Club". Santa Cruz Sentinel. 13 November 1894. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  104. "Egyptian Archeology". The Inter Ocean. 17 January 1897. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  105. "Information About Books". The Inter Ocean. 6 January 1898. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  106. "Thursday". The Junction City Weekly Union. 17 December 1892. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  107. "Woman's Club Opposes Sunday Closing". Chicago Daily Tribune. 11 December 1892. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  108. "Women in Industrialism". The Oregon Daily Journal. 2 January 1904. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  109. "The Woman in Business". Arkansas Democrat. 10 April 1904. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  110. "Work for Unemployed on Farms". Chicago Daily Tribune. 22 January 1894. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  111. "Ada C. Sweet Chosen". The Chicago Tribune. 20 May 1894. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  112. "The Chicago Woman's Club has the credit..." The Daily Republican. 28 May 1894. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  113. "Housework Uncrowded Industry". The Times Dispatch. 5 January 1915. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  114. "Club Employment Center Moves". Chicago Daily Tribune. 7 January 1915. Retrieved 18 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  115. "Club Women War Over Corset". The Inter Ocean. 18 March 1904. Retrieved 12 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  116. "Ask Half Holiday in City's Stores". Chicago Tribune. 14 April 1910. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  117. "For Dr. Stevenson". The Inter Ocean. 31 May 1894. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  118. "An Able Woman Preacher". Wilkes-Barre Times Leader, the Evening News. 17 August 1894. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  119. "A Brilliant Woman". The Belvidere Standard. 31 October 1894. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  120. "The Chicago Woman's Club held a reception". The Inter Ocean. 2 February 1896. Retrieved 11 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  121. Croly 1898, p. 64.
  122. Croly 1898, p. 60.
  123. Getis 2000, p. 98.
  124. "People & Events: Bertha Honoré Palmer (1849-1918)". Chicago: City of the Century Home. PBS. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  125. "Biography of Elia Wilkinson Peattie1862-1935". Elia Peattie. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  126. "Nominees of the Democrats". Chicago Daily Tribune. 5 November 1894. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  127. "Notable Club Women". The Northford Women's Club. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  128. "Mrs. Celia Parker Woolley". Los Angeles Herald. 11 September 1894. Retrieved 10 January 2017 – via Newspapers.com.
  129. "Reform Department". Forty-First Annual Announcement of the Chicago Woman's Club. 43: 53. 1917.

Sources
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.