Creationist cosmologies

Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution and ultimate fate of the universe.[2] Scientific cosmology uses the scientific method, which means forming theories or hypotheses which make specific predictions that can be tested with observations; depending on the outcome of the observations, the theories will be abandoned, revised or extended to accommodate the data.[3] The scientific model of the origin and evolution of our universe is the Big Bang.[3] The Bang was not like a conventional explosion, in which fragments of a bomb are thrown outwards, but rather was an explosion of space within itself; all the matter and energy of the universe had been contained in a single point, and at the Bang all of the particles of the embryonic universe began rushing away from each other.[4] The "bang" occurred approximately 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus the age of the universe.[5]

Creationism is premised on belief in the inerrancy of a literal interpretation of the bible.[6] According to prominent young Earth advocate Ken Ham, president of creationary ministry Answers in Genesis, their interpretation of the Book of Genesis cannot be questioned, lest the entire bible be compromised: "Refute or undermine in any way the biblical doctrine of origins, and the rest of the bible is compromised."[7] Ham continues: "Genesis is the only book that provides an account of the origins of all the basic entities of life and the universe: the origin of life, of man, of government, of marriage, of culture, of nations, of death, of the chosen people, of sin, of diet and clothes, of the solar system..."[8] The first chapter of Genesis describes God creating the world through divine command over six days:[1]

• Day 1: Creation of light, separation of light from darkness;
• Day 2: Creation of the firmament, separation of waters above the Earth from waters below;
• Day 3: Separation of waters below the firmament from the dry land; the Earth is commanded to produce vegetation;
• Day 4: Creation of "lights" (Sun, Moon and stars) in the firmament;
• Day 5: Creation of fish and birds to populate the sea and sky;
• Day 6: Creation of animals (followed by) creation of mankind.

The age of the Earth is one of the most polarizing issues within the evangelical Christian community today.[9] Young Earth creationists hold that the world is no older than about 10,000 years – a belief apparently shared by 47% of Americans and taught in 10% of American colleges.[10] This is based on the comprehensive Biblical chronology built into the Old Testament, rather than on the six days of creation (the belief that creation took place over six days does not automatically lead to a 10,000-year-old Earth). The creationist website Answers in Genesis, for example, has an outline of world history from an Old Testament perspective in which the period from Abraham to Jesus is listed as "approximately 1992 years"; this period, plus the 2,000 years from Christ to the modern day, "is not in question," and the debate focuses on the centuries-long lifespans of Methusaleh and other figures from Genesis 1–11.[11] This approach has a deep history in Christian thought: prior to the mid-18th century, the age of the Earth was calculated partly or wholly on the basis of the bible and religious theory.[12] Using these methods, the 17th century scholar Archbishop Ussher arrived at the conclusion that the Earth was created in 4004 BC, exactly four thousand years before the birth of Christ, giving the universe an age of some six thousand years.[13] Ussher's date was still being printed as a marginal note in many bibles until the early part of the 20th century.[13]

Old Earth creationists accept that the Earth is old, while (mostly) still holding the events of Genesis 1 to be historical.[14] In the late 19th century Christian apologists accommodated the Biblical creation within emerging scientific geology and paleontology (the study of fossils) by interpreting vast ages for Earth history within immensely long biblical "days" described by the Hebrew word Yom (day-age creationism). Theologian David Wilkinson wrote:

Although yom is used as a longer period of time elsewhere in the Bible, it is highly unlikely that the writer of Genesis 1 was using it in that way. This is shown by the days being used as part of a week and with the emphasis on “evening and morning” (e.g.,Gen. 1:8). Further, the agreement between the general order of the biblical creative acts and the fossil record is not exact, so that trees appear before marine creatures (Gen. 1:11, 20), and evening and morning appear before the sun and moon (Gen. 1:5,14).[15]

Modern Old Earth creationism recognises that a 6,000-year-old universe contradicts the scientific evidence that the Earth is four and a half billion years old,[16] and favours separating Genesis into two creations, one "in the beginning" and a second Edenic creation in six days.[17]

Space and time (spacetime) are properties of the universe, so that to talk about a time before the universe began "would be like asking for a point south of the South Pole" (Stephen Hawking).[18] Creationist cosmology holds that the cause of the universe does lie outside time and space in the absolute sense (not just before what is described as our 'Big Bang' event) and without evidence try to disregard or discredit evidence of a timeline that contradicts a religious biblical narrative. A 1981 law from the US state of Arkansas setting out six cardinal tenets of "creation science", described the first as the principle that the universe, energy and life were the result of "sudden creation ... from nothing."[19] The idea that God created the world "out of nothing" has been a fundamental tenet of Christian theology since the 2nd century,[20] but scholars agree that the idea is not actually in Genesis, nor in the entire Hebrew Bible, and is found no earlier than later Judaism.[21][22]

The biblical cosmology is that of the ancient Near East: a flat Earth, heavens above, and the underworld below.[23] Surrounding this were the "waters of chaos", the cosmic sea, home to mythic monsters defeated and slain by God (Exodus 20:4 warns against making an image "of anything that is in the waters under the Earth").[24] There were waters above the Earth, and so the solid bowl-shaped firmament of the second day was necessary to keep them from flooding the world.[25] Young Earth creationists deny this, and hold that the Bible describes a spherical Earth hanging in empty space,[26] and most teach that the Earth goes round the sun (although the Association for Biblical Astronomy holds that the Earth is stationary and the sun moves around it). This is the standard modern scientific picture of the cosmos, but its elements are comparatively recent – the fact that the Earth circles the sun, for example, was only established in the 16th century, and the existence of separate galaxies not bound to our own was confirmed only in the 1920s.[27] Creationist cosmologies thus credit the biblical authors with cosmological knowledge well in advance of their contemporaries in the ancient world.

The universe has no edge; it is not known whether it is finite or infinite, but we can only observe a finite amount of it (the observable universe).[28] It has no centre: the Big Bang should not be visualised as an explosion outwards from a central point, but as an equal expansion at all points within itself.[29] This expansion still continues: a useful analogy for the shape of the universe is therefore the surface of an expanding balloon, on which every point is moving away from every other point (but bearing in mind that the universe has at least three dimensions, while the skin of the balloon has only two).[29] Creationist cosmologies have no single position on these questions, but there seems to be a bias towards a universe which is curved rather than flat, bounded rather than unbounded, and finite rather than infinite. Most strikingly, there seems to be a common hypothesis that the universe has a centre and the Earth is at or near it (Galactocentrism): "A creationist cosmology requires a finite universe that is most likely spherically symmetric about our galaxy ."[30]

Creationist Jonathan Sarfati describes God as "by definition ... the uncreated creator of the universe" (italics in original).[31] The existence of the universe thereby serves as proof of the existence of God, expressed by theologian William Lane Craig as the kalam cosmological argument: "Given ... that whatever begins to exist has a cause of its existence, we have been led to conclude that the universe has a cause of its existence. ... [T]his cause would have to be uncaused, eternal, changeless, timeless, and immaterial. Moreover, it would have to be a personal agent who freely elects to create an effect in time. Therefore ... I conclude that it is rational to believe that God exists."[32] The demonstrated existence of God in turn leads into God's purpose in creating the cosmos, which is mankind: "The observations that place the Earth near the centre of the universe are consistent with God’s focus on mankind."[30]

For many centuries, the geocentric model, a description of the cosmos which posited Earth as the center of all celestial bodies, was widely accepted by a variety of different civilizations. The geocentric model was developed primarily by Greek philosopher Aristotle and Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy.[33] The geocentric model was challenged by clergyman astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus in his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium published in 1543.[34] Copernicus' astronomical model Copernican heliocentrism, led to the development and general acceptance of the Copernican principle in the majority of succeeding astronomical models. The case for the Copernicus principle was further bolstered early in the 20th century, by the discovery that the Solar System is far from the center of the Milky Way.[35]

The young Earth creationist website Answers in Genesis dismisses the Big Bang as "entirely fiction",[36] "nothing more than an attempt by men ... to try and explain how they think we might have been created without a Creator."[37]

One of the most common creationist criticisms of the Big Bang concerns the horizon problem and supposed problems with the inflationary theory of the early universe.[38] Creationists have claimed that dark matter and dark energy are doubtful concepts invented by Big Bang theorists in order to uphold the theory.[39][40][41][42] Creationists also point to the Baryon asymmetry problem, i.e., that the Big Bang is expected to have produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter.[43]

• Aune, David E. (2003). "Cosmology". Westminster Dictionary of the New Testament and Early Christian Literature. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664219178.
• Bandstra, Barry (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0495391050.
• Castelvecchi, Davide (July 25, 2011). "What Do You Mean, The Universe Is Flat?, Part 1". Degrees of Freedom: The boundless dimensions of math and physics. Scientific American.
• Craig, William Lane (1991). "The Existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe". LeadershipU. Archived from the original on 1997-01-09.
• Dalrymple, G. Brent (2004). Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804749336. Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings.
• Dalrymple, G. Brent (1994). The Age of the Earth. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804723312.
• Enns, Peter (January 14, 2010). "The Firmament of Genesis 1 is Solid but That's Not the Point". Biologos. Archived from the original on February 10, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
• Gebel, Oliver (2008). Creationism and Intelligent Design. GRIN. ISBN 978-3640117277.
• Gibbs, Philip (1997). "Where is the centre of the universe?". University of California at Riverside.
• Greene, Brian (2011). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. Random House. ISBN 978-1446477779.
• Greene, Jon W. (2 August 2012). "A Biblical Case for Old-Earth Creationism". Evidence for God.
• Harris, J.F. (2002). Analytic philosophy of religion. Springer. ISBN 978-1402005305.
• Harrison, Peter (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521712514.
• Hartnett, John (2005). "A creationist cosmology in a galactocentric universe". Creation Ministries International.
• Hawking, Stephen (10 December 2010). "The Origin of the Universe".
• Hendel, Ronald (2012). The Book of Genesis: A Biography. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691140124.
• Hughes, Jeremy (1990). Secrets of the Times: Myth and History in Biblical Chronology. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0567629302.
• Johnson, Gaines. "Contrasting The Major Creation Models: Logical Faults and Strengths". The Bible: Genesis and Geology. kjvbible.org. Archived from the original on 2013-01-15.
• LaRocco, Chris; Rothstein, Blair. "The Big Bang". Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. University of Michigan.
• Lisle, Jason (December 13, 2007). "Does Distant Starlight Prove the Universe Is Old?". The New Answers Book. Answers in Genesis.
• Lisle, Jason (April 15, 2010). "Does the Big Bang Fit with the Bible?". The New Answers Book 2. Answers in Genesis.
• McGee, David (2012). "Creation Date of Adam from the Perspective of Young-Earth Creationism". Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. Answers in Genesis.
• North, John (2008). Cosmos: An Illustrated History of Astronomy and Cosmology. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226594415.
• Numbers, Ronald L. (1992). The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520083936. The Creationists.
• Numbers, Ronald L. (2006). The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0674023390.
• Pennock, Robert T. (2000). Tower of Babel, The Evidence against the New Creationism. The MIT Press. pp. 451 pages. ISBN 0-262-66111-X.
• Rosenhouse, Jason (2012). Among the Creationists: Dispatches from the Anti-Evolutionist Front Line. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199744633.
• Ryken, Leland; Wilhoit, Jim; Longman, Tremper, eds. (1998). "Cosmology". Dictionary of Biblical Imagery. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0830867332.
• Safarti, Jonathan. "If God created the universe, then who created God?".
• Schneider, Robert J. (September 2001). "Does the Bible Teach a Spherical Earth?". American Scientific Affiliation.
• Ska, Jean Louis (2012). "The History of Israel: Its Emergence as an Independent Discipline". In Saebo, Magne (ed.). Hebrew Bible / Old Testament. III: From Modernism to Post-Modernism. Part I: The Nineteenth Century – a Century of Modernism and Historicism. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-3525540213.
• Wilkinson, David (2009). "Reading Genesis 1–3 in the Light of Modern Science". In Barton, Stephen C.; Wilkinson, David (eds.). Reading Genesis After Darwin. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195383362.
• Walton, John H. (2006). Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1585582914.
• Wollack, Edward J. (10 December 2010). "Cosmology: The Study of the Universe". Universe 101: Big Bang Theory. NASA. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
• Wright, J. Edward (2002). The Early History of Heaven. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195348491.

• Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences. National Academy of Sciences, 2nd edn (1999)
• Donald B. DeYoung, Astronomy and the Bible: Questions and Answers. Baker Books, 2nd edn, April 2000
• Danny R. Faulkner, Universe by Design. Master Books, September 2004
• John Hartnett, Starlight, Time and the New Physics. Creation Book Publishers, 2007
• Russell Humphreys, Starlight and Time. Master Books, 1994

• Dealing with Creationism in Astronomy, W. T. Bridgman
• Gentry's cosmology: A New Redshift Interpretation,
• Gentry's cosmology : A New Cosmic Center Model.