Foreign involvement in the Venezuelan presidential crisis

During the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis, AP News reported that "familiar geopolitical sides" had formed, with allies Russia, China, Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Cuba supporting Maduro, and the US, Canada, and most of Western Europe supporting Juan Guaidó as interim president.[1][2] Amid widespread condemnation,[3][4][5] President Maduro was sworn in on 10 January 2019, and the President of the National Assembly, Guaidó, was declared the interim President by that body on 23 January 2019.[6][7] Intervention by the United States in Venezuela has been alleged by allies of Nicolás Maduro and political figures from the left spectrum;[8] Maduro's government states that the crisis is a "coup d'état led by the United States to topple him and control the country's oil reserves."[9][10][11] Guaidó denies the coup allegations, saying peaceful volunteers back his movement.[12][13]

Background

Presidents of Cuba, Bolivia and El Salvador greet Maduro at Maduro's second inauguration on 10 January 2019

Hugo Chávez had alleged that there has been U.S. intervention in Venezuela during his presidency.[14] In early 2015, the Maduro government accused the United States of attempting to overthrow him. The Venezuelan government performed elaborate actions to respond to such alleged attempts and to convince the public that its claims were true.[15] The reactions included the arrest of Antonio Ledezma in February 2015, forcing American tourists to go through travel requirements and holding military marches and public exercises "for the first time in Venezuela's democratic history".[15] After the United States ordered sanctions to be placed on seven Venezuelan officials for human rights violations, Maduro used anti-U.S. rhetoric to bump up his approval ratings.[16][17] However, according to Venezuelan political scientist Isabella Picón, only about 15% of Venezuelans believed in the alleged coup attempt accusations at the time.[15]

In 2016, Maduro again claimed that the United States was attempting to assist the opposition with a coup attempt. On 12 January 2016, Secretary General of the Organization of American States (OAS), Luis Almagro, threatened to invoke the Inter-American Democratic Charter, an instrument used to defend democracy in the Americas when threatened, when opposition National Assembly member were barred from taking their seats by the Maduro-aligned Supreme Court.[18] Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch,[19] and the Human Rights Foundation[20] called for the OAS to invoke the Democratic Charter. After more controversies and pursuing a recall on Maduro, on 2 May 2016, opposition members of the National Assembly met with OAS officials to ask for the body to implement the Democratic Charter.[21] Two days later on 4 May, the Maduro government called for a meeting the next day with the OAS, with Venezuelan Foreign Minister Delcy Rodríguez stating that the United States and the OAS were attempting to overthrow Maduro.[22] On 17 May 2016 in a national speech, Maduro called OAS Secretary General Luis Almagro "a traitor" and stated that he worked for the CIA.[23] Almagro sent a letter rebuking Maduro, and refuting the claim.[24]

The Trump administration described Maduro's government as a "dictatorship".[25] When meeting with Latin American leaders during the seventy-second session of the UN General Assembly, President Donald Trump discussed possible United States military intervention in Venezuela, to which they all denied the offer.[26] President Maduro's son, Nicolás Maduro Guerra, stated during the 5th Constituent Assembly of Venezuela session that if the United States were to attack Venezuela, "the rifles would arrive in New York, Mr. Trump, we would arrive and take the White House".[27]

Military involvement

On 18 February, President Donald Trump advised Venezuelan soldiers to renounce loyalty to Nicolás Maduro.[28]

In early 2019, with Cuban and Russian-backed security forces in the country, United States military involvement became the subject of speculation.[29] Senior U.S. officials have declared that "all options are on the table",[30] but have also said that "our objective is a peaceful transfer of power".[31] Maduro announced that state funds would be used to purchase new military equipment, saying "we are going to make enough investment so that Venezuela has all the anti-aircraft and anti-missile defense systems ... even the most modern in the world, Venezuela will have them because Venezuela wants peace".[32]

Colombian guerrillas from National Liberation Army (ELN) have also vowed to defend Maduro, with ELN leaders in Cuba stating that they are drafting plans to provide military assistance to Maduro.[33] The Redes Foundation denounced in the Colombian Public Ministry that armed groups made up of ELN members and FARC dissidents, supported by the Bolivarian National Police and FAES officials, murdered two Venezuelans, Eduardo José Marrero and Luigi Ángel Guerrero, during a protest in the frontier city of San Cristóbal, on Táchira state.[34]

Michael Shifter, president of the Inter-American Dialogue think tank, stated that "military action of the United States against Venezuela would be contrary to the movements of the Trump administration to retire troops from Syria or Afghanistan."[35] According to professor Erick Langer of Georgetown University, "Cuba and Russia have already intervened".[29]

According to the Cuban government, more than 20,000 Cubans are working in Venezuela,[36] the exact number of Cuban military operatives in Venezuela is unclear.[37] According to a 2014 Brookings Institution report, there were hundreds to thousands of Cuban intelligence operatives and military advisors in Venezuela,[37] with similar numbers reported in 2019.[29] US National Security Advisor John R. Bolton claimed that the "fear of the 20,000 to 25,000 Cuban security forces in the country" prevented the success of the 2019 Venezuelan uprising.[38] Cuba director of US affairs Carlos Fernández de Cossío disputes Bolton's claim, insisting that Cuba does not participate neither in military nor in security affairs in Venezuela, "[o]nly medical staff in humanitarian mission” according to Cuba Foreign Affairs Ministry.[38] Defected Venezuelan Lieutenant José Montiel López in the US said in an interview with The Washington Post that Cuban military disguised as civilians acted as "our supervisors and decision-makers”.[36] According to sixteen Cuban doctors interviewed by The New York Times, Cuban medical staff in Venezuela has also been involved in manipulation and withholding of medicines to coerce patients to support Maduro during elections.[39] During the uprising, Trump threatened a "full and complete embargo, together with highest-level sanctions" on Cuba if its troops do not cease operations in Venezuela.[40]

In April 2019, private Iranian airline Mahan Air launched direct flights from Tehran to Caracas. The company is accused of transporting military equipment to Middle East war zones.[41] The airline was blacklisted by the United States in 2011 for providing support to Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)[41]–designated as a terrorist organization by the governments of Bahrain, Saudi Arabia and the United States (in 2019).[42][43] The governments of France and Germany banned Mahan Air in early 2019 for similar reasons.[41] According to Fox News, the launch of Tehran-Caracas flight "has signified a growing relationship between the two nations".[44] Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif, suggested that Iran could send IRGC personnel to Venezuela to protect President Maduro.[45][46] The offer was condemned by OAS Secretary General Luis Almagro.[47] According to the Newsweek, "The presence of Russian, Chinese and Iranian planes in Caracas has outraged the U.S., which already has troops based in neighboring Colombia and in other countries across a region long targeted by Washington's efforts to halt the spread of leftist ideologies."[48]

According to Giancarlo Fiorella, writing in Foreign Affairs, the "loudest calls for intervention are coming not from the White House and its media mouthpieces but from some members of the Venezuelan opposition and from residents of the country desperate for a solution—any solution—to their years-long plight."[30] Fiorella states that "talk of invoking article 187(11) has become commonplace" in Venezuela, adding that "the push for a military intervention in Venezuela is most intense not among hawks in Washington but inside the country itself".[30] Article 187 of the Constitution of Venezuela provides: "It shall be the function of the National Assembly: (11) To authorize the operation of Venezuelan military missions abroad or foreign military missions within the country."[49][30] In every demonstration summoned by Guaidó, there are numerous signs demanding the application of Article 187.[50] Following the unsuccessful attempt to bring humanitarian aid into Venezuela on 23 February, a political faction supported by National Assembly deputy María Corina Machado began to demand application of Article 187, to "open the way" for "foreign intervention in order to prevent crimes against humanity".[30] Former mayor of Caracas, Antonio Ledezma has also called for application of 187, and the calls for intervention have taken hold outside of the political realm, with a March poll showing 87.5% support for foreign intervention.[lower-alpha 1][30] Guaidó has said he will call for intervention "when the time comes", but in media interviews, he has not stated he supports removing Maduro by force.[30]

Maduro with Iranian President Hassan Rouhani in Tehran, Iran (2015)

The National Assembly approved in July 2019 the reincorporation of Venezuela to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Tratado Interamericano de Asistencia Recíproca).[51] Known as the Rio Pact or Rio Treaty, and by its Spanish-language acronym, TIAR is a mutual defense pact signed in 1947 that has never been enacted.[52] Its premise is that "an armed attack by any State against an American State shall be considered an attack against all American States".[52] Venezuela retired from TIAR in 2013; Deputy Francisco Sucre stated that Chávez had removed Venezuela from the pact in a "strategy to isolate Venezuela by a totalitarian system mirroring [Cuba]".[53] Venezuela's reincorporation to the pact "can be used to request military assistance against foreign troops inside the country".[53]

In December 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo stated that the United States did not plan a military intervention in Venezuela, saying that "we have said that all options are on the table", but that "we have learned from history that the risks from using military force are significant".[54]

Russian presence

2018

Russian president Putin meeting with Maduro in Brazil (2014)

Reuters reported that Russian mercenaries associated with the Wagner Group were in Venezuela to defend Maduro's government.[55] Professor Robert Ellis of the United States Army War College described 400 Wagner Group mercenaries provided by Russia as the "palace guard of Nicolás Maduro".[29] Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov denied the deployment of Russian mercenaries, calling it "fake news".[56][57]

Two nuclear weapon-capable Russian planes landed in Venezuela in December 2018 in what Reuters called a "show of support for Maduro's socialist government".[58]

2019

On 3 March 2019, Russian Federation Council speaker Valentina Matviyenko told Venezuelan Vice President Delcy Rodríguez that Russia will make every effort to prevent military intervention in Venezuela and believes that the crisis was artificially created by the US, which can be solved only through dialogue.[59]

On 23 March 2019, two Russian planes landed in Venezuela carrying 99 troops[60] and 35 tonnes of matériel.[58] Alexey Seredin from the Russian Embassy in Caracas said the two planes were "part of an effort to maintain Maduro's defense apparatus, which includes Sukhoi fighter jets and anti-aircraft systems purchased from Russia".[60] On 29 March, a flight simulation center for Russian helicopters was launched in Venezuela,[61] and another flight simulator center is planned, as is a plant to produce Russian arms.[60] Russia supplies arms, special forces, and military advisors to Venezuela, and a base for cyber warfare is under construction on a Venezuelan island.[62]

Diosdado Cabello said the arrival of the planes was approved and authorized by Maduro.[63] Russian Foreign Affairs spokeswoman Maria Zakharova also confirmed the presence of military personnel in Venezuela, arguing that the countries had a bilateral agreement on military cooperation signed by Presidents Putin and Chávez in May 2001.[64][65] Seredin said Russian investments in Venezuelan mining, agriculture and transportation are also contemplated.[60]

Vladimir Zaemsky, Russia's ambassador to Venezuela said that the Russian military are helping their Venezuelan counterparts to defend themselves in the face of the "threat of the use of force" by the United States. Ambassador Zaemsky also said that the Venezuelan military needs to make sure that the weapons they have are in a functioning state while maintaining combat readiness of their equipment and teach them how best to use it.[66]

National Assembly deputy Williams Dávila said the National Assembly would investigate the "penetration of foreign forces in Venezuela", since Venezuela's Constitution requires that the legislature authorize foreign military missions and the arrival of Russian military was a "violation of Venezuelan sovereignty".[67] Guaidó declared that foreign soldiers have been "imported" because Maduro's government does not trust the Venezuelan Armed Forces.[68] US Secretary of State Pompeo accused Russia of "reckless escalation" of the situation in Venezuela,[63][69] and warned Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov that the US would "not stand idly by", but did not say what the US response to Russian troops in Venezuela would be.[70] Lavrov responded by accusing the Trump administration of organizing a coup in Venezuela.[71] A United States Southern Command spokesperson said Russia's deployment of troops "directly undercuts the democratic aspirations of the Venezuelan people"; the OAS called it "a harmful act to Venezuelan sovereignty".[72] In late March, US National Security Advisor Bolton said the US considered Russia's involvement a "direct threat to international peace and security in the region".[60]

In April 2019, Malta refused to allow Russian planes to use its airspace to supply Maduro's government. Morgan Ortagus, spokeswoman of the United States State Department, applauded the decision; weeks earlier, the US raised concerns when Russian planes from Syria crossed Malta's airspace to transport soldiers and matériel to Venezuela.[73] Russia described Malta's actions as "unfriendly" and warns that it will take this into account in bilateral relations between the two countries.[74]

According to Agence France-Presse, Sergey Lavrov the foreign minister of Russia said to American foreign minister that: we condemn obvious interference of America in Venezuela; he also emphasized that the future of this country should be determined based on its people decision.[75] Mutually, the United States says that Russian action(s) in Caracas is unprofitable,[76] and severely criticized[77] for sending Russian troops to Venezuela.[78][79]

An article of The Wall Street Journal reported that Russia state defense contractor reduced Rostec staff in Venezuela in June due to "the acceptance that Mr. Maduro’s regime no longer has the cash to continue to pay for other Rostec services associated with past contracts".[80] According to undisclosed sources, the number of Russian operatives would have been reduced to "just a few dozen from about 1,000 at the height of cooperation between Moscow and Caracas several years ago".[80] Donald Trump announced in Twitter: "Russia has informed us that they have removed most of their people from Venezuela".[81] Rostec reported that the numbers published by the newspaper were exaggerated[82][83] and Russian spokesman Dmitry Peskov, expressed to the press that he had not been in touch with Trump: "it’s a circumstantial reference to newspaper sources of information, because there was no official message about this from the Russian side".[83] According to news agency RIA, Russia foreign ministry expressed some days later that their country was ready to send more military specialist if needed, another Russian press, TASS, quoted the ministry saying that Russia did not rule out increasing the number of military in Venezuela.[84]

On 26 June, Russia announced the withdrawal of its military technicians, operating in Venezuela since March. According to the Russian embassy in Caracas, "Russia delivered to Venezuela high-level equipment that requires regular maintenance. Furthermore, Russian specialists provided technical training to Venezuelan staff. Unlike reported, it was not a Russian military presence but the fulfillment of maintenance contracts".[85]

In September, two Russian planes said to be carrying technical specialists arrived in Venezuela.[86]

On 10 December, a group of around forty Russian soldiers arrived to Canaima, Bolívar, on a Shaanxi Y-8 plane landing on the runway that serves as the entry to the National Park. Locals assured that the soldiers wore uniforms of the Venezuelan Armed Forces and that they carried crates with microwave equipment, satellite antennas, signal inhibitors, and other devices.[87]

2020

Russia welcomed Luis Parra's appointment during the 2020 Venezuelan National Assembly Delegated Committee election. The Russian Foreign Ministry said that the appointment contributes to the return of the intra-Venezuelan political struggle to the constitutional field that will find a peaceful exit to the ongoing crisis.[88] Opposition deputies denounced that Russia looked after supporting Parra to improve its businesses in Venezuela, including to increase the Russian shareholder participation in oil contracts and other mining concessions that need the approval of the National Assembly and that it would not have with Guaidó.[89]

Venezuelan media reported on 7 May, after the Macuto Bay raid, that Russian Special Operations Forces were assisting Maduro with surveillance from unmanned aerial vehicles.[90]

Sanctions

Filling stations
Top: Venezuela's PDVSA; bottom: Russia's Rosneft, Spain's Repsol

During the crisis in Venezuela, the United States, the European Union, Canada, Mexico, Panama and Switzerland have applied individual sanctions against people associated with Maduro's administration, including government officials, members of the military and security forces, and private individuals alleged to be involved in human rights abuses, corruption, degradation in the rule of law and repression of democracy. Public Radio International (PRI) said the sanctions targeted Maduro and Chavismo "elites", while "they've done little to make an impact on ordinary Venezuelans, whose lives have spiraled into a humanitarian crisis as hyperinflation has driven nearly 3 million to flee."[91] As of 27 March 2018, the Washington Office on Latin America said 78 Venezuelans associated with Maduro had been sanctioned by several countries.[92]

In 2018, Trump signed an order that prohibits people in the U.S. from making any type of transaction with digital currency emitted by or in the name of the government of Venezuela as of 9 January 2018. The executive order referenced "Petro", a crypto-currency also known as petromoneda.[93]

As the humanitarian crisis deepened and expanded, the Trump administration levied more serious economic sanctions against Venezuela, and "Maduro accused the US of plunging Venezuelan citizens further into economic crisis."[91] In January 2019, during the presidential crisis, the United States imposed sanctions on the Venezuelan state-owned oil and natural gas company PDVSA to pressure Maduro to resign.[94] Reuters said the sanctions are expected to reduce Venezuela's ability to purchase food and other imports which could result in further shortages and worsen its economic position.[94] PRI said that "sanctions against PDVSA are likely to yield stronger and more direct economic consequences".[91] Companies including India's Reliance Industries Limited, Russia's Rosneft, Spain's Repsol, and commodity trading companies Trafigura and Vitol continue to supply Venezuela's oil industry as of 11 April 2019.[95]

United States' Special Representative for Venezuela Elliott Abrams with Secretary of State Mike Pompeo in January 2019

The United States Department of the Treasury placed sanctions affecting Venezuela's gold industry in March 2019, explaining that Maduro's government "is pillaging the wealth of Venezuela while imperiling indigenous people by encroaching on protected areas and causing deforestation and habitat loss".[96] After the detention of Guaidó's chief of staff, Roberto Marrero, in March 2019, the US also sanctioned the Venezuelan bank BANDES and its subsidiaries.[97] The Maduro administration issued a statement saying that it "energetically rejects the unilateral, coercive, arbitrary and illegal measures" that would affect banking for millions of people.[98]

Venezuela accused Canada of supporting Trump's 'war adventure' after Canada imposed new sanctions on 43 members of the Maduro government in April, including foreign minister Jorge Arreaza.[99] The foreign ministry of Venezuela said that Canada's Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, "has invalidated Canada as a reliable actor in dialogue", and had "declared their intention to destroy the Venezuelan economy to inflict suffering on the people".[99]

In a speech on 17 April 2019 in Miami on the anniversary of the failed 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, Bolton announced new restrictions on U.S. dealings with the three countries he calls the troika of tyranny—Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela—as "part of a broader set of policies" aimed at "reversing the Obama administration's embrace" of Cuba.[100] Maduro said the sanctions were "totally illegal" and that "Central banks around the world are sacred, all countries respect them. ... To me the empire looks crazy, desperate."[101]

See also

Notes

  1. Foreign Affairs states "this figure is likely inflated—the surveys do not define what a military intervention under 187(11) would look like.[30]

References

  1. Vasilyeva, Nataliya (24 January 2019). "Venezuela crisis: Familiar geopolitical sides take shape". AP News. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  2. Britton, Bianca (24 January 2019). "'Pouring gas on fire': Russia slams Trump's stance in Venezuela". CNN. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  3. "Venezuela swears in an illegitimate President". Financial Times. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
  4. Herrero, Ana Vanessa and Megan Specia (10 January 2019). "Venezuela is in crisis. So how did Maduro secure a second term?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
  5. Redacción (7 January 2019). "Christian Zerpa, el juez afín a Maduro que huyó a Estados Unidos y denuncia falta de independencia del poder judicial de Venezuela". BBC News Mundo. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
  6. "Guaido vs Maduro: Who backs Venezuela's two presidents?". CNBC. Reuters. 24 January 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
  7. "Maduro faces off with U.S. over Venezuela rival's power claim". PBS. 24 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  8. "America and the policy of regime change and Latin America". bbc.com. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
  9. "Canciller Arreaza advierte que objetivo de plan golpista es el petróleo venezolano" (in Spanish). presidencia.gob.ve. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
  10. "Maduro afirma que el petróleo es el principal motivo de la presión de EEUU contra Venezuela" (in Spanish). Europa Press. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
  11. "Venezuela protests are sign that US wants our oil, says Nicolás Maduro". .theguardian.com. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
  12. Borges, Anelise (18 February 2019). "'I'm ready to die for my country's future,' Juan Guaido tells Euronews". Euronews. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
  13. "What Would a U.S. Intervention in Venezuela Look Like?". foreignaffairs.com. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  14. "Venezuelan national assembly bars foreign funding for NGOs". The Guardian. Associated Press. 22 December 2010. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
  15. Lansberg-Rodríguez, Daniel (15 March 2015). "Coup Fatigue in Caracas". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
  16. Lee, Brianna (25 March 2015). "Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro's Approval Rating Gets A Tiny Bump Amid Tensions With US". International Business Times. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  17. "Woman who hit Venezuelan president with mango given new home". Special Broadcasting Service. 25 April 2015. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  18. "Letter of the OAS Secretary General to the President of Venezuela". Organization of American States. 12 January 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  19. "Venezuela: OAS Should Invoke Democratic Charter". Human Rights Watch. 16 May 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  20. "The Inter-American Democratic Charter and Mr. Insulza". Human Rights Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  21. Ordonez, Franco (4 May 2016). "Venezuela calls for extraordinary OAS meeting". The Miami Herald. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  22. Ordonez, Franco (5 May 2016). "Venezuela accuses U.S. of conspiring to topple Nicolás Maduro". The Kansas City Star. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  23. "Maduro sobre Almagro: 'Es un traidor, algún día contaré su historia'". Noticias24. 17 May 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  24. "Message from the OAS Secretary General to the President of Venezuela". Organization of American States. 18 May 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  25. Merica, Dan. "Trump says he won't rule out military option in Venezuela". CNN. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
  26. Diamond, Jeremy (5 July 2018). "Trump asked advisers about invading Venezuela in 2017". CNN.
  27. Uzcátegui, Ruth (12 August 2017). "Nicolás Maduro Guerra sobre intervención de Trump: Llegaríamos a tomar la Casa Blanca". Diario Panorama (in Spanish).
  28. "Ditch Maduro or lose everything, Trump tells Venezuelan army". The Guardian. 18 February 2019.
  29. Pardo, Paul (4 February 2019). "¿Cómo sería una invasión de Estados Unidos en Venezuela?". El Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  30. Fiorella, Giancarlo (17 April 2019). "Will Guaidó call for U.S. military intervention?". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
  31. Hains, Tim (1 February 2019). "John Bolton: "All Options Are On The Table" For Venezuela; Hope For "Peaceful" Transfer Of Power". Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  32. "Mientras familias pasan hambre, Maduro asegura que 'invertirá' en los misiles más modernos del mundo (VIDEO)". La Patilla (in Spanish). 10 February 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
  33. Charles, Mathew (2 February 2019). "ELN interview: Colombian Marxist guerrillas 'will fight' US troops if they invade Venezuela". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  34. "Denuncian que guerrillas colombianas causaron muerte a venezolanos durante manifestaciones contra Maduro". Infobae. 25 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  35. Pardo, Pablo (4 February 2019). "¿Cómo sería una invasión de Estados Unidos en Venezuela?". El Mundo. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
  36. Faiola, Anthony (26 March 2019). "As Venezuela's misery grows, U.S. focus shifts to Cuba's role". The Washington Post. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  37. Cárdenas, José R. (7 February 2018). "Cuba Is Making the Crisis in Venezuela Worse". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  38. Taylor, Adam (2 May 2019). "How many Cuban troops are there in Venezuela? The U.S. says over 20,000. Cuba says zero". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  39. Casey, Nicholas (17 March 2019). "'It is unspeakable': How Maduro used Cuban doctors to coerce Venezuela voters". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  40. "Trump threatens 'full' embargo on Cuba over Venezuela security support". Reuters. 30 April 2019. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
  41. "Iran's Mahan Air launches direct flights to Venezuela". Reuters. 8 April 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
  42. Gaouette, Nicole (8 April 2019). "Trump designates elite Iranian military force as a terrorist organization". CNN. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  43. "Saudi, Bahrain add Iran's IRGC to terror lists - SPA". Euronews. 23 October 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  44. Suarez Sang, Lucia I (8 April 2019). "US-blacklisted Iranian airline begins direct flights to Venezuela". FOX News. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  45. "Irán le ofreció a Nicolás Maduro soldados de elite de la Guardia Revolucionaria Islámica". Infobae (in Spanish). 15 April 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
  46. David Brennan (18 April 2019). "Russia vows to continue Venezuela support despite new U.S. sanctions". Newsweek. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  47. "El jefe de la OEA rechaza el ofrecimiento iraní de enviar tropas a Venezuela | Aurora". Aurora Israel (in Spanish). 18 April 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  48. "Iran Follows Russia to Venezuela, but U.S. Military Sees China As 'True Threat'". Newsweek. 9 April 2019.
  49. "Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela". Human Rights Library. University of the Minnesota. Retrieved 9 March 2019. Also here.
  50. Paola Martínez, Sammy (14 April 2019). "Expertos señalan que la aplicación del artículo 187.11 no implica una intervención militar" [Experts point out that the application of article 187.11 does not imply a military intervention] (in Spanish). El Pitazo. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
  51. "Venezuela rejoins regional defense treaty but Guaido warns it's no 'magic' solution". Reuters. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  52. "Crisis en Venezuela: qué es el TIAR, el pacto interamericano de defensa mutua al que quiere sumarse la oposición de Venezuela" [Crisis in Venezuela: what is TIAR, the inter-American pact of mutual defense which Venezuela's opposition wants to join] (in Spanish). BBC. 7 May 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  53. Sayago, Gabriel (8 May 2019). "AN aprueba reintegración de Venezuela al TIAR" [NA approves reintegration of Venezuela to the TIAR]. El Universal (in Spanish). Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  54. "Pompeo defends military restraint on Venezuela". France 24. 2 December 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  55. "Private military contractors linked to Russia are reportedly in Venezuela to protect Maduro". Business Insider. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  56. "Russia denies sending mercenaries to protect Venezuela's president". South China Morning Post. 28 January 2019.
  57. "Russia warns against foreign interference in Venezuela". Anadolu Agency. 28 January 2019.
  58. "Russian air force planes land in Venezuela carrying troops: report". Reuters. 24 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
  59. "Russia seeks to prevent military intervention in Venezuela - upper house speaker". TASS. 3 March 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  60. Zuñiga, Mariana and Anthony Faiola (30 March 2019). "As Maduro confronts a crisis, Russia's footprint in Venezuela grows: Moscow is seizing an opportunity to stick a finger in Washington's eye, experts say". The Washington Post via ProQuest.
  61. "Rusia abre centro de formación militar para pilotos de helicópteros en Venezuela". MSN (in Spanish). 29 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  62. Arostegui, Martin (10 April 2019). "US, EU at odds over Venezuela sanctions". VOA News. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  63. "Venezuelan Socialist Party deputy confirms two planes landed from Russia". Reuters. 25 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  64. "Russia confirms its military personnel arrived in Venezuela". Washington Post. 27 March 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
  65. "President Vladimir Putin had talks with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez in the Kremlin". Kremlin.ru. 14 May 2001. Retrieved 28 March 2019. The Presidents were present at the ceremony of signing inter-governmental documents: an agreement on military-technical cooperation, on cooperation in fighting illegal drug trafficking and a protocol on creating a mechanism of political dialogue and cooperation between Russia and the Andes Community.
  66. "Russian army helping Venezuela amid US 'threats': Moscow's ambassador". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 24 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  67. González, Ron (24 March 2019). "Militares rusos copan la escena en jornada libre para Maduro y Guaidó" [Russian military take over the stage on a free day for Maduro and Guaidó]. La Vanguardia (in Spanish). Retrieved 24 March 2019.
  68. "Guaidó sobre nuevo megaapagón: Hablan de sabotaje pero tienen militarizadas instalaciones eléctricas" (in Spanish). Efecto Cocuyo. 26 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  69. "Russian troops in Venezuela violates constitution: Guaido". France 24. 6 March 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  70. "Pompeo: US will not 'stand idly' as Russia escalates Venezuela tensions". Voice of America. Reuters. 25 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  71. "Russia's Lavrov tells Pompeo U.S. tried to organize Venezuela coup". Reuters. 26 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  72. "Russia's Deployment of Military Planes to Venezuela Sparks U.S. Backlash". The Moscow Times. 26 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  73. "Malta niega permiso de paso a aviones militares rusos". El Nacional (in Spanish). 19 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
  74. "Russia describes Malta's refusal to allow planes to overfly air space as 'unfriendly'". The Independent Malta. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  75. "Lavrov: we condemn obvious interference of the U.S. in Venezuela". alalamtv.net. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
  76. "America says that Russian action in Caracas is unprofitable". voanews.com. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  77. "Severely criticism of America due to sending Russian troops to Venezuela". radiofarda.com. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  78. "Russia acknowledges presence of troops in Venezuela". theguardian.com. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  79. "Russian military arrive in Venezuela to discuss 'training and strategy'". theguardian.com. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  80. Grove, Thomas (2 June 2019). "In a Blow to Maduro, Russia Withdraws Key Defense Support to Venezuela". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  81. "Trump: Russia told U.S. 'most of their people' have left Venezuela". Reuters. 3 June 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  82. "Rostec niega retirada de especialistas militares rusos de Venezuela". Efecto Cocuyo (in Spanish). 3 June 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  83. "Kremlin dismisses Trump tweet on alleged Venezuela withdrawal". Reuters. 4 June 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  84. "Moscow ready to send more military specialists to Venezuela if needed: RIA". Reuters. 7 June 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  85. "Russia to withdraw military 'technicians' from Venezuela on Wednesday: embassy". France 24. 26 June 2019.
  86. "Russian military specialists arrive in Venezuela to service equipment: Interfax". Reuters. 25 September 2019. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
  87. Barráez, Sebastiana (16 December 2019). "Los rusos instalaron equipos y drones en Venezuela con ayuda de un jefe indígena y la complicidad de militares chavistas" (in Spanish). Infobae. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  88. Teslova, Elena (7 January 2020). "Russia praises election of Venezuelan parliament chief". Anadolu Agency. Retrieved 7 January 2020.
  89. "Rusia intenta negociar contratos petroleros con el parlamento controlado por Maduro". ABC (in Spanish). 2020-01-11. Retrieved 2020-01-11.
  90. Leon, Ibis (8 May 2020). "Agentes rusos rastrean a implicados en "Operación Gedeón" en Carayaca". Efecto Cocuyo. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
  91. Vidal, Laura and Jessica Carrillo Mazzali (31 January 2019). "US sanctions squeezed Venezuela's Chavismo elites. This time, it's oil". Public Radio International.
  92. Camacho, Carlos (27 March 2018). "Panama sanctions Venezuela, including Maduro & 1st Lady family companies". Latin American Herald Tribune. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  93. "Estados Unidos prohibió las operaciones con el Petro, la criptomoneda venezolana". Infobae (in Spanish). 19 March 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
  94. Lee, Matthew and Deb Riechmann (29 January 2019). "US hits Venezuela with oil sanctions to pressure Maduro". AP. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  95. Isla Binnie (11 April 2019). "Washington to decide on Repsol's Venezuela activity: U.S. envoy". Reuters. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  96. Wyss, Jim (19 March 2019). "Washington hits Venezuela's gold sector with new sanctions". Miami Herald. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
  97. "US slaps sanctions on Venezuelan bank". France 24. 22 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
  98. Wroughton, Lesley and Deisy Buitrago (22 March 2019). "U.S. blacklists Venezuelan state banks after arrest of Guaido aide". Reuters. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
  99. "Venezuela in crisis: All the latest updates". Al Jazeera. 15 May 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
  100. Chokshi, Niraj and Frances Robles (17 April 2019). "Trump administration announces new restrictions on dealing with Cuba". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
  101. "Trump's Cuba hawks try to squeeze Havana over Venezuela role". Reuters. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.