Hyperaccumulators table – 3

This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic solvents (Potassium ferrocyanide).

See also:

hyperaccumulators and contaminants: Radionuclides, Hydrocarbons and Organic Solvents – accumulation rates
ContaminantAccumulation rates (in mg/kg of dry weight)Latin nameEnglish nameH-Hyperaccumulator or A-Accumulator P-Precipitator T-TolerantNotesSources
CdAthyrium yokoscense(Japanese false spleenwort?)Cd(A), Cu(H), Pb(H), Zn(H)Origin Japan[1]
Cd>100Avena strigosa Schreb.New-Oat
Lopsided Oat or Bristle Oat
[2]
CdH-Bacopa monnieriSmooth Water Hyssop, Waterhyssop, Brahmi, Thyme-leafed gratiola, Water hyssopCr(H), Cu(H), Hg(A), Pb(A)Origin India; aquatic emergent species[1][3]
CdBrassicaceaeMustards, mustard flowers, crucifers or, cabbage familyCd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)Phytoextraction[4]
CdA-Brassica juncea L.Indian mustardCr(A), Cu(H), Ni(H), Pb(H), Pb(P), U(A), Zn(H)cultivated[1][4][5]
CdH-Vallisneria americanaTape GrassCr(A), Cu(H), Pb(H)Origins Europe and N. Africa; extensively cultivated in the aquarium trade[1]
Cd>100Crotalaria junceaSunn or sunn hempHigh amounts of total soluble phenolics[2]
CdH-Eichhornia crassipesWater HyacinthCr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb(H), Zn(A). Also Cs, Sr, U[6] and pesticides[7]Pantropical/Subtropical, 'the troublesome weed'[1]
CdHelianthus annuusSunflowerPhytoextraction & rhizofiltration[1][4][8]
CdH-Hydrilla verticillataHydrillaCr(A), Hg(H), Pb(H)[1]
CdH-Lemna minorDuckweedPb(H), Cu(H), Zn(A)Native to North America and widespread[1]
CdT-Pistia stratiotesWater lettuceCu(T), Hg(H), Cr(H)Pantropical, Origin South U.S.A.; aquatic herb[1]
CdSalix viminalis L.Common Osier, Basket WillowAg, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalix);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[8]
CdSpirodela polyrhizaGiant DuckweedCr(H), Pb(H), Ni(H), Zn(A)Native to North America[1][10][11]
Cd>100Tagetes erecta L.African-tallTolerance only. Lipid peroxidation level increases; activities of antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and catalase are depressed.[2]
CdThlaspi caerulescensAlpine pennycressCr(A), Co(H), Cu(H), Mo, Ni(H), Pb(H), Zn(H)Phytoextraction. Its rhizosphere's bacterial population is less dense than with Trifolium pratense but richer in specific metal-resistant bacteria.[12][1][4][10][13][14][15][16]
Cd1000Vallisneria spiralisEel grass37 records of plants; origin India[10][17]
Cs-137Acer rubrum, Acer pseudoplatanusRed maple, Sycamore maplePu-238, Sr-90Leaves: much less uptake in Larch and Sycamore maple than in Spruce.[18][6]
Cs-137Agrostis spp.Agrostis spp.Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
Cs-137up to 3000 Bq kg-1[19]Amaranthus retroflexus ( cv. Belozernii, aureus, Pt-95)Redroot AmaranthCd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)[4]Phytoextraction. Can accumulate radionuclides, ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6] Maximum concentration is reached after 35 days of growth.[19]
Cs-137BrassicaceaeMustards, mustard flowers, crucifers or, cabbage familyCd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)Phytoextraction. Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6][4]
Cs-137Brassica junceaIndian mustardContains 2 to 3 times more Cs-137 in his roots than in the biomass above ground[19] Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6]
Cs-137Cerastium fontanumBig ChickweedGrass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Beta vulgaris, Chenopodiaceae, Kail? and/or Salsola?Beet, Quinoa, Russian thistleSr-90, Cs-137Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Cocos nuciferaCoconut palmTree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Eichhornia crassipesWater hyacinthU, Sr (high % uptake within a few days[6]). Also Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb, Zn(A)[1] and pesticides.[7][6]
Cs-137Eragrostis bahiensis
(Eragrostis)
Bahia lovegrassGlomus mosseae as amendment. It increases the surface area of the plant roots, allowing roots to acquire more nutrients, water and therefore more available radionuclides in soil solution.[6]
Cs-137Eucalyptus tereticornisForest redgumSr-90Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Festuca arundinaceaTall fescueGrass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Festuca rubraFescueGrass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Glomus mosseae as chelating agent
(Glomus (fungus))
Mycorrhizal fungiGlomus mosseae as amendment. It increases the surface area of the plant roots, allowing roots to acquire more nutrients, water and therefore more available radionuclides in soil solution.[6]
Cs-137Glomus intradices
(Glomus (fungus))
Mycorrhizal fungiGlomus mosseae as chelating agent. It increases the surface area of the plant roots, allowing roots to acquire more nutrients, water and therefore more available radionuclides in soil solution.[6]
Cs-1374900-8600[20]Helianthus annuusSunflowerU, Sr (high % uptake within a few days[6])Accumulates up to 8 times more Cs-137 than timothy or foxtail. Contains 2 to 3 times more Cs-137 in his roots than in the biomass above ground.[19][1][6][10]
Cs-137LarixLarchLeaves: much less uptake in Larch and Sycamore maple than in Spruce. 20% of the translocated caesium into new leaves resulted from root-uptake 2.5 years after the Chernobyl accident.[18]
Cs-137Liquidambar styracifluaAmerican Sweet GumPu-238, Sr-90Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Liriodendron tulipiferaTulip treePu-238, Sr-90Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Lolium multiflorumItalian RyegrassSrMycorrhizae: accumulates much more Cs-137 and Sr-90 when grown in Sphagnum peat than in any other medium incl. Clay, sand, silt and compost.[21][6]
Cs-137Lolium perennePerennial ryegrassCan accumulate radionuclides[6]
Cs-137Panicum virgatumSwitchgrass[6]
Cs-137Phaseolus acutifoliusTepary BeansCd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)[4]Phytoextraction. Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents[6]
Cs-137Phalaris arundinacea L.Reed canary grassCd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)[4] Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6]Phytoextraction
Cs-137Picea abiesSpruceConc. about 25-times higher in bark compared to wood, 1.5–4.7 times higher in directly contaminated twig-axes than in leaves.[18]
Cs-137Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosaMonterey Pine, Ponderosa pineSr-90. Also petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products (Pinus spp.[4]Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides.[6]
Cs-137Sorghum halepenseJohnson Grass[6]
Cs-137Trifolium repensWhite CloverGrass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
Cs-137HZea maysCornHigh absorption rate. Accumulates radionuclides.[16] Contains 2 to 3 times more Cs137 in his roots than in the biomass above ground.[19][1][6][10]
Co1000 to 4304[22]Haumaniastrum robertii
(Lamiaceae)
Copper flower27 records of plants; origin Africa. Vernacular name: 'copper flower'. This species' phanerogamme has the highest cobalt content. Its distribution could be governed by cobalt rather than copper.[22][10][14]
CoH-Thlaspi caerulescensAlpine pennycressCd(H), Cr(A), Cu(H), Mo, Ni(H), Pb(H), Zn(H)Phytoextraction[1][4][10][12][13][14][15]
Pu-238Acer rubrumRed mapleCs-137, Sr-90Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
Pu-238Liquidambar styracifluaAmerican Sweet GumCs-137, Sr-90Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
Pu-238Liriodendron tulipiferaTulip treeCs-137, Sr-90Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
RaNo reports found for accumulation[10]
SrAcer rubrumRed mapleCs-137, Pu-238Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
SrBrassicaceaeMustards, mustard flowers, crucifers or, cabbage familyCd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Zn(H)Phytoextraction[4]
SrBeta vulgaris, Chenopodiaceae, Kail? and/or Salsola?Beet, Quinoa, Russian thistleSr-90, Cs-137Can accumulate radionuclides[6]
SrEichhornia crassipesWater HyacinthCs-137, U-234, 235, 238. Also Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb, Zn(A)[1] and pesticides.[7]In pH of 9, accumulates high concentrations of Sr-90 with approx. 80 to 90% of it in its roots[20][6]
SrEucalyptus tereticornisForest redgumCs-137Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
SrH-?Helianthus annuusSunflowerAccumulates radionuclides;[16] high absorption rate. Phytoextraction & rhizofiltration[1][4][6][10]
SrLiquidambar styracifluaAmerican Sweet GumCs-137, Pu-238Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
SrLiriodendron tulipiferaTulip treeCs-137, Pu-238Tree able to accumulate radionuclides[6]
SrLolium multiflorumItalian RyegrassCsMycorrhizae: accumulates much more Cs-137 and Sr-90 when grown in Sphagnum peat than in any other medium incl. clay, sand, silt and compost.[21][6]
Sr1.5-4.5 % in their shootsPinus radiata, Pinus ponderosaMonterey Pine, Ponderosa pinePetroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cs-137Phytocontainment. Accumulate 1.5-4.5 % of Sr-90 in their shoots.[20][6]
SrApiaceae (a.k.a. Umbelliferae)Carrot or parsley familySpecies most capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
SrFabaceae (a.k.a. Leguminosae)Legume, pea, or bean familySpecies most capable of accumulating radionuclides[6]
UAmaranthusAmaranthCd(A), Cr(A), Cu(H), Ni(H), Pb(H), Pb(P), Zn(H)Citric acid chelating agent[8] and see note. Cs: maximum concentration is reached after 35 days of growth.[19][1][6]
UBrassica juncea, Brassica chinensis, Brassica narinosaCabbage familyCd(A), Cr(A), Cu(H), Ni(H), Pb(H), Pb(P), Zn(H)Citric acid chelating agent increases uptake 1000 times,[8][23] and see note[1][4][6]
U-234, 235, 238Eichhornia crassipesWater HyacinthCs-137, Sr-90. Also Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb, Zn(A),[1] and pesticides.[7][6]
U-234, 235, 23895% of U in 24 hours.[19]Helianthus annuusSunflowerAccumulates radionuclides;[16] At a contaminated wastewater site in Ashtabula, Ohio, 4 wk-old splants can remove more than 95% of uranium in 24 hours.[19] Phytoextraction & rhizofiltration.[1][4][6][8][10]
UJuniperusJuniperAccumulates (radionuclides) U in his roots[20][6]
UPicea marianaBlack SpruceAccumulates (radionuclides) U in his twigs[20][6]
UQuercusOakAccumulates (radionuclides) U in his roots[20][6]
UKail? and/or Salsola?Russian thistle (tumble weed)
USalix viminalisCommon OsierAg, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[8]
USilene vulgaris (a.k.a. "Silene cucubalus) Bladder campion
UZea maysMaize
UA-?[10]
RadionuclidesTradescantia bracteataSpiderwortIndicator for radionuclides: the stamens (normally blue or blue-purple) become pink when exposed to radionuclides[6]
BenzeneChlorophytum comosumspider plant[24]
BenzeneFicus elasticarubber fig, rubber bush, rubber tree, rubber plant, or Indian rubber bush[24]
BenzeneKalanchoe blossfeldianaKalanchoeseems to take benzene selectively over toluene.[24]
BenzenePelargonium x domesticumGermanium[24]
BTEXPhanerochaete chrysosporiumWhite rot fungusDDT, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzene, PCPPhytostimulation[4]
DDTPhanerochaete chrysosporiumWhite rot fungusBTEX, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzene, PCPPhytostimulation[4]
DieldrinPhanerochaete chrysosporiumWhite rot fungusDDT, BTEX, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzene, PCPPhytostimulation[4]
EndosulfanPhanerochaete chrysosporiumWhite rot fungusDDT, BTEX, Dieldrin, PCP, Pentachloronitro-benzènePhytostimulation[4]
FluorantheneCyclotella caspia Cyclotella caspia Approximate rate of biodegradation on 1st day: 35%; on 6th day: 85% (rate of physical degradation 5.86% only).[25]
HydrocarbonsCynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.Bermuda grassMean petroleum hydrocarbons reduction of 68% after 1 year[26]
HydrocarbonsFestuca arundinaceaTall fescueMean petroleum hydrocarbons reduction of 62% after 1 year[8][27]
HydrocarbonsPinus spp.Pine spp.Organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90[6]Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6][4]
HydrocarbonsSalix spp.Osier spp.Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[4]
MTBEPinus spp.Pine spp.Petroleum hydrocarbons, Organic solvents, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6]Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6][4]
MTBESalix spp.Osier spp.Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction, phytocontainment. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[4]
Organic solventsPinus spp.Pine spp.Petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6]Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6][4]
Organic solventsSalix spp.Osier spp.Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction. phytocontainment . Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[4]
Organic solventsPinus spp.Pine spp.Petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6]Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6][4]
Organic solventsSalix spp.Osier spp.Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction. phytocontainment . Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[4]
PCNBPhanerochaete chrysosporiumWhite rot fungusDDT, BTEX, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, PCPPhytostimulation[4]
Potassium ferrocyanide8.64% to 15.67% of initial massSalix babylonica L.Weeping WillowAg, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products (Salix spp.);[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes). No ferrocyanide in air from plant transpiration. A large fraction of initial mass was metabolized during transport within the plant.[9][9]
Potassium ferrocyanide8.64% to 15.67% of initial massSalix matsudana Koidz, Salix matsudana Koidz x Salix alba L.Hankow Willow, Hybrid WillowAg, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products (Salix spp.);[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis).[8]No ferrocyanide in air from plant transpiration.[9]
PCBRosa spp.Paul’s Scarlet RosePhytodegradation[4]
PCPPhanerochaete chrysosporiumWhite rot fungusDDT, BTEX, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzènePhytostimulation[4]
TCEChlorophytum comosumspider plantSeems to lower the removal rates of benzene and methane.[24]
TCE and by-productsPinus spp.Pine spp.Petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6]Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6][4]
TCE and by-productsSalix spp.Osier spp.Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9]Phytoextraction, phytocontainment. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes)[4]
Musa (genus)Banana treeExtra-dense root system, good for rhizofiltration.[28]
Cyperus papyrusPapyrusExtra-dense root system, good for rhizofiltration[28]
TarosExtra-dense root system, good for rhizofiltration[28]
Brugmansia spp.Angel's trumpetSemi-anaerobic, good for rhizofiltration[29]
CaladiumCaladiumSemi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Caltha palustrisMarsh marigoldSemi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Iris pseudacorusYellow Flag, paleyellow irisSemi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Mentha aquaticaWater MintSemi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Scirpus lacustrisBulrushSemi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Typha latifoliaBroadleaf cattailSemi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]

Notes

  • Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt[8] and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals).
  • Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow.[30]
  • Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides.[31]
  • Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides.[30] See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984.[21] Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90 availability, and a lower base saturation for uptake of both Sr-90 and Cs-137.[30]
  • Radionuclides: Fertilizing the soil with nitrogen if needed will indirectly increase the take-up of radionuclides by generally boosting the plant's overall growth and more specifically roots' growth. But some fertilizers such as K or Ca compete with the radionuclides for cation exchange sites, and will not increase the take-up of radionuclides.[30]
  • Radionuclides: Zhu and Smolders, lab test:[32] Cs uptake is mostly influenced by K supply. The uptake of radiocaesium depends mainly on two transport pathways on plant root cell membranes: the K+ transporter and the K+ channel pathway. Cs is likely transported by the K+ transport system. When external concentration of K is limited to low levels, le K+ transporter shows little discrimination against Cs+; if K supply is high, the K+ channel is dominant and shows high discrimination against Cs+. Caesium is very mobile within the plant, but the ratio Cs/K is not uniform within the plant. Phytoremediation as a possible option for the decontamination of caesium-contaminated soils is limited mainly by that it takes tens of years and creates large volumes of waste.
  • Alpine pennycress or Alpine Pennygrass is found as Alpine Pennycrest in (some books).
  • The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field.
  • Radionuclides: Broadley and Willey[33] find that across 30 taxa studied, Gramineae and Chenopodiaceae show the strongest correlation between Rb (K) and Cs concentration. The fast-growing Chenopodiaceae discriminate approx. 9 times less between Rb and Cs than the slow-growingGramineae, and this correlate with highest and lowest concentrations achieved respectively.
  • Caesium: In Chernobyl-derived radioactivity, the amount of contamination is dependent on the roughness of bark, absolute bark surface and the existence of leaves during the deposition. The major contamination of the shoots is from direct deposition on the trees.[18]

Annotated References

  1. McCutcheon & Schnoor 2003, Phytoremediation. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons pg 898
  2. Shimpei Uraguchi, Izumi Watanabe, Akiko Yoshitomi, Masako Kiyono and Katsuji Kuno, Characteristics of cadmium accumulation and tolerance in novel Cd-accumulating crops, Avena strigosa and Crotalaria juncea. Journal of Experimental Botany 2006 57(12):2955-2965; doi:10.1093/jxb/erl056
  3. Gurta et al. 1994
  4. McCutcheon & Schnoor 2003, Phytoremediation. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons pg 19
  5. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-03-10. Retrieved 2006-10-16.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Lindsay E. Bennetta, Jason L. Burkheada, Kerry L. Halea, Norman Terryb, Marinus Pilona and Elizabeth A. H. Pilon-Smits, Analysis of Transgenic Indian Mustard Plants for Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Mine Tailings. Journal of Environmental Quality 32:432-440 (2003)
  6. Phytoremediation of radionuclides.
  7. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-05-20. Retrieved 2006-10-16.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) J.K. Lan. Recent developments of phytoremediation.
  8. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-02-25. Retrieved 2006-10-16.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link), Enhancing Phytoextraction: The Effect of Chemical Soil Manipulation on Mobility, Plant Accumulation, and Leaching of Heavy Metals, by Ulrich Schmidt.
  9. Yu X.Z., Zhou P.H. and Yang Y.M., The potential for phytoremediation of iron cyanide complex by Willows.
  10. McCutcheon & Schnoor 2003, Phytoremediation. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons pg 891
  11. Srivastav 1994
  12. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2006-10-28.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) T.A. Delorme, J.V. Gagliardi, J.S. Angle, and R.L. Chaney. Influence of the zinc hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens J. & C. Presl. and the nonmetal accumulator Trifolium pratense L. on soil microbial populations. Conseil National de Recherches du Canada
  13. Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, Nickelophilous plants and their significance in phytotechnologies. Braz. J. Plant Physiol. Vol.17 no.1 Londrina Jan./Mar. 2005
  14. Baker & Brooks, 1989
  15. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. Retrieved 2006-10-16.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) E. Lombi, F.J. Zhao, S.J. Dunham et S.P. McGrath, Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal, Contaminated Soils, Natural Hyperaccumulation versus Chemically Enhanced Phytoextraction.
  16. Phytoremediation Decision Tree, ITRC
  17. Brown et al. 1995
  18. , J. Ertel and H. Ziegler, Cs-134/137 contamination and root uptake of different forest trees before and after the Chernobyl accident, Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, June 1991, Vol. 30, nr. 2, pp. 147-157
  19. Dushenkov, S., A. Mikheev, A. Prokhnevsky, M. Ruchko, and B. Sorochinsky, Phytoremediation of Radiocesium-Contaminated Soil in the Vicinity of Chernobyl, Ukraine. Environmental Science and Technology 1999. 33, no. 3 : 469-475. Cited in Phytoremediation of radionuclides.
  20. Negri, C. M., and R. R. Hinchman, 2000. The use of plants for the treatment of radionuclides. Chapter 8 of Phytoremediation of toxic metals: Using plants to clean up the environment, ed. I. Raskin and B. D. Ensley. New York: Wiley-Interscience Publication. Cited in Phytoremediation of Radionuclides.
  21. A. Paasikallio, The effect of time on the availability of strontium-90 and cesium-137 to plants from Finnish soils. Annales Agriculturae Fenniae, 1984. 23: 109-120. Cited in Westhoff99.
  22. R. R. Brooks, Copper and cobalt uptake by Haumaniustrum species.
  23. Huang, J. W., M. J. Blaylock, Y. Kapulnik, and B. D. Ensley, 1998. Phytoremediation of Uranium-Contaminated Soils: Role of Organic Acids in Triggering Uranium Hyperaccumulation in Plants. Environmental Science and Technology. 32, no. 13 : 2004-2008. Cited in Phytoremediation of radionuclides.
  24. J.J.Cornejo, F.G.Muñoz, C.Y.Ma and A.J.Stewart, Studies on the decontamination of air by plants.
  25. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2006-10-19.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link). Yu Liu, Tian-Gang Luan, Ning-Ning Lu, Chong-Yu Lan, Toxicity of Fluoranthene and Its Biodegradation by Cyclotella caspia Alga. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, Fev. 2006
  26. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2006-10-16.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) S.L. Hutchinson, M.K. Banks and A.P. Schwab, Phytoremediation of Aged Petroleum Sludge, Effect of Inorganic Fertilizer
  27. S.D. Siciliano, J.J. Germida, K. Banks and C. W. Greer. Changes in Microbial Community Composition and Function during a Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon Phytoremediation Field Trial. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, January 2003, p. 483-489, Vol. 69, No. 1
  28. "Living Machines". Erik Alm describes them as 'freaks' because of their over-abundant root system even in such nutrient-rich environments. This is a prime factor in treating wastewaters: more surface for adsorption / absorption, and finer filter for larger impurities
  29. , "Living Machines". These marsh plants can live in semi-anaerobic environments and are used in wastewater treating ponds
  30. J.A. Entry, N.C. Vance, M.A. Hamilton, D. Zabowski, L.S. Watrud, D.C. Adriano. Phytoremediation of soil contaminated with low concentrations of radionuclides. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 1996. 88: 167-176. Cited in Westhoff99.
  31. J.A. Entry, P. T. Rygiewicz, W.H. Emmingham. Strontium-90 uptake by Pinus ponderosa and Pinus radiata seedlings inoculated with ectomycorrhizal fungi. Environmental Pollution 1994, 86: 201-206. Cited in Westhoff99.
  32. Y-G. Zhu and E. Smolders, Plant uptake of radiocaesium: a review of mechanisms, regulation and application. Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol. 51, No. 351, pp. 1635-1645, October 2000
  33. M.R. Broadley and N.J. Willey. Differences in root uptake of radiocaesium by 30 plant taxa. Environmental Pollution 1997, Volume 97, Issues 1-2, Pages 11-15
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