Japanese female beauty practices and ideals

Ukiyo-e reproduction of a woman by Utamaro

The first form of white face powder was made out of rice flour and white soil during the Hakuhō period.[3] The manufacture of this was imported from China. This was limited to the upper class until the Edo period (1600–1868) where it was used extensively by the public.[3]

During the Nara period, lips and eyelids were given a red tint, and red beauty spots were painted on the outer corners of the lips and eyes, as well as in between the eyebrows.[4] Hikimayu, the removal of natural eyebrows and penciling in new ones was practiced primarily in the upper classes. This became a norm for every woman to represent their married status, and until the end of the 19th century this continued. [3]

Teeth blackening during the Heian period, known as ohaguro, involved coating the teeth black with paint, mainly done by the wealthy. The black teeth imitated tooth decay, and decay was a status symbol as only the wealthy could afford sweets.[5] This was used to sustain healthy teeth, as well as enhance sex appeal.[3] Plump, round faced women were considered beautiful in this period, symbolising wealth as they were able to afford a lot of food.[4] Straight, long black hair was also ideal. In essays written in 1002 called The Pillow Book, Sei Shōnagon, a court lady stated that she envied "beautiful, very long hair".[4]

Etiquette of how to use the cosmetics was important during the Edo period, with emphasis of the colours white, red and black.[5] The use of white face powder and teeth blackening continued. Heavy red lipstick made out of safflowers became popular.[5] Face steaming was thought to make the skin white and smooth, and sanekazura root juice was used to straighten hair.[4] Light, proper use of makeup was ideal. The women of Osaka and Kyoto were ridiculed as they used heavier makeup than the women in Tokyo, considering them to be "yabo" (rough). [3] Slim and fragile women with up turned eyes and narrow faces also began to be the ideal, shifting away from the preference of plumpness.[4] Small hands and feet were also considered beautiful, therefore socks and rings were worn by women in their sleep to slow down the growth of their limbs. [4]

After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, there was a westernisation of makeup techniques and clothing from the influence of the cultural exchange with the United States and Europe.[3] Admiration to the white skin of westerners were often referred to in historical writings, but wavy hair was disapproved of until the mid-1920s.[4]

In the 19th century women over 35 were respected and praised as virtuous grandmothers, but were seemed as unattractive.[14] By the start of the 20th century, older women were considered more beautiful, and the cosmetics industry had introduced anti-aging products such as creams, and practices of dying hair.[14] This was fundamental in skin care brands as it assured women their youth could be restored, a highly valued beauty ideal. Japan was the largest non-western market for the demand of anti-aging products.[14]

The Japanese perceptions of excessively whitening their skin was changed by two events. The first one was the Food and Drugs Standards Law in 1900, forbidding the use of lead-based makeup.[15] The second was more information about the dangers of lead poisoning, contributing to anxieties of maintaining skin health.[15] Traditional cosmetics were viewed as dangerous and the maintenance of clear pores became a serious aspect, especially due to the Nakamura Incident of 1887, where a kabuki actor was wearing heavy makeup on stage and then suffered from "skin suffocation". [15]

Biganjutsu (the technique of the beautiful face) emerged as a practice that made caring for the skin as a basic hygiene.[15] The average facial, available in urban areas involved putting a hot towel on the face to open up pores, massaging the face with cream, and lastly electrotherapeutic devices were used.[15] This assured smooth, blemish and wrinkle-free skin without the need of having to over up with heavy makeup. The new beauty goal was to create a healthy complexion, radiating with "natural beauty".[15]

Throughout the Taishō period (1912–1926), there was a further Westernisation in Japan, with flourishing amounts of western fashion in Ginza, the first shopping district in Tokyo. New cosmetics products that came from liberal ideas of scientists originated from Shiseido. [3] Arinobu Fukuhara was an entrepreneur who opened the Shiseido pharmacy in Ginza in 1872, Japan's first western style pharmacy, distinctive from when the pharmacies only sold traditional Chinese medicine at the time.[14] Shiseido's success emerged from the launch of a luxurious skin lotion called Eudermine in 1897. To create an emotional association, they used a non-Japanese name, from classical Greek terms meaning "good" and "skin". It was so successful that it is still continued to be sold today. [14] The exotic motto "Richness in All" used by Shiseido accurately represented the time as it was when Japan was still new to western influences.[3] In 1923, women were limited to only one shade of powder which was pure white, but Shiseido then produced powder of seven different shades of skin colour.[3] This new range promoted that the natural skin colour was the beauty ideal, allowing women to match their own colour, expressing liberation and individuality of women. [3]

Starting from the Heisei Period (1989–2019), natural, healthy and clear skin was the new standard of beauty, redeveloping the meaning of whiteness.[15] The cosmetics industry introduced powders that were skin coloured, and not just pure white. [15] Pure white also sometimes revealed signs of disease and was no longer considered as beautiful as it once was before.[15] The new ideal of skin colour was nikutaibi, which implied health and is a balance between tan and white, a complexion of pink paleness. Healthy skin was highly important as it was seen to be associated with fertility potential, especially during the prewar period. [15]

After the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (Japan) in 1985, the makeup style for women was heavy, emphasising their facial features by contouring, colouring in their eyebrows dark, and using deeper lip shades.[16] This shifted towards a natural and lighter style of makeup after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, also known as the Great East Japan Earthquake. It was seen to express a softer beauty in a sensitive time of healing. [16] This style has continued until today, with preferences of bright skin, soft coloured eyebrows, light shimmery eyeshadows and warm toned blushes. [16]