Sprained ankle

Ankle sprains are classified grade 1, 2, and 3.[6] Depending on the amount of damage or the number of ligaments that are damaged, each sprain is classified from mild to severe. A grade 1 sprain is defined as mild damage to a ligament or ligaments without instability of the affected joint. A grade 2 sprain is considered a partial tear to the ligament, in which it is stretched to the point that it becomes loose. A grade 3 sprain is a complete tear of a ligament, causing instability in the affected joint.[7] Bruising may occur around the ankle.[8]

The most common type of ankle sprain occurs when the foot has a force, typically body weight, causing it to internally rotated to a higher degree than it is supposed to, affecting the lateral side of the foot. When this type of ankle sprain happens, the outer, or lateral, ligaments are stretched too much. The anterior talofibular ligament is one of the most commonly involved ligaments in this type of sprain, followed by the calcaneofibular ligament[9] and posterior talofibular ligament[9] respectively, the later found in more severe ankle sprains. Approximately 70–85% of ankle sprains are inversion injuries.

Ankle Inversion

When the ankle becomes inverted, the anterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments are damaged. This is the most common ankle sprain.

A less common type of ankle sprain is called an eversion injury, affecting the medial side of the foot. This happens when, instead of the ankle rotating medially resulting in an inversion injury (the foot rolling too much to the inside), the ankle rotates laterally resulting in an eversion injury (when the foot rolls too much to the outside). When this occurs, the medial, or deltoid, ligament is strained.

A high ankle sprain is an injury to the large ligaments above the ankle that join together the two long bones of the lower leg, called the tibia and fibula. High ankle sprains commonly occur from a sudden and forceful outward twisting of the foot. This commonly occurs in contact and cutting sports such as football, rugby, ice hockey, roller derby, basketball, volleyball, lacrosse, softball, baseball, track, ultimate frisbee, soccer, tennis and badminton and horse riding.

A brace offering moderate support and compression for a Grade I ankle sprain.

Ice is often used to reduce swelling in cycles of 15–20 minutes on and 20–30 minutes off. Icing an ankle too long can cause cold injuries, which is indicated by the area turning white.[13] Also, it is often recommended that ice not be applied directly to the skin, but should have a thin buffer between the ice and the affected area, and some professionals think ice need not be applied at all. Recently, Gabe Mirkin, MD, who coined and popularized the acronym RICE in his The Sports Medicine Book in 1978, now has some issues with the "i" in RICE. After reviewing modern studies, he notes that because ice closes off the blood vessels, "ice doesn’t increase healing—it delays it." and now advises skipping ice altogether unless needed to reduce pain from swelling.[14] Still, it is widely accepted and, although the clinical evidence is sparse, cryotherapy (ice) has been a mainstay of clinical practice for rehabilitation specialists.

In uncomplicated lateral ankle sprains, swelling of the soft tissue can be prevented with compression around both malleoli, elevation of the injured ankle higher than the heart, and pain-free exercises.[15]

An orthopedic walking boot is often used for the treatment of a sprained ankle injury. Braces and crutches are also used to help alleviate the pain so the injured ankle can heal as quickly and painlessly as possible.

Although found to be less effective than casts, compression bandages are used to provide support and compression for sprained ankles. Wrapping is started at the ball of the foot and slowly continued up to the base of the calf muscle; this allows the swelling to travel up toward the center of the body so that it does not gather in the foot.

Many different types of rehabilitation exercises can be done to aid an ankle sprain regardless of the severity of the injury. The purpose of rehabilitation gives the ability for the ankle to regain strength and flexibility. A sprained ankle becomes swollen due to the increased amount of edema within the tissue, since this physiological effect is the foundation of the pain the decline of edema is the main goal during the beginning of rehabilitation.[16] This can be done instantly by implementing the RICE mechanism which is resting the ankle, applying ice, compressing, and elevating it.[10] The emphasis of the first week of rehabilitation should be on protecting the ankle to avoid further damage. As the healing progresses, stress can be applied by different mechanisms until the ankle is fully recovered.[17] The key to a fast recovery is to implement all the different types of ankle sprain exercises so that the range of motion will increase while the pain is decreasing.[18]

In cases where the ankle does not heal in an appropriate amount of time, other exercises need to be implemented so that strength and flexibility can be regained. Physical therapists assign different types of ankle sprain exercises that deal with ankle flexibility, strengthening, balance, and agility. If an ankle sprain does not heal properly, the joint may become unstable and may lead to chronic pain.[19] Receiving proper treatment and performing exercises that promote ankle function is important to strengthen the ankle and prevent further injury.

A short period of immobilization in a below-knee cast or in an Aircast leads to a faster recovery at 3 months compared to a tubular compression bandage.[20] In contrast, a randomized controlled trial has concluded that appropriate exercise immediately after a sprain improves function and recovery.[21] These exercises were focused on increasing ankle range of movement, activation and strengthening of ankle musculature, and restoring normal sensorimotor control, and were carried out for 20 minutes, three times a day.[21] After the injury, it is advisable not to walk for a couple of days. Bed rest will help to accelerate the healing process and eliminate the chance of mishandling the affected limb. Driving vehicles or operating machinery should not be attempted.

The amount of therapy that a person can handle will depend on their level of pain and the grade of sprain they experienced. It is not recommended to return to sports or extreme physical activities until hopping on the ankle is possible without pain. Wearing high-top tennis shoes may also help prevent ankle sprains if the shoes used are laced snugly and if the ankle is taped with a wide, nonelastic adhesive tape.[22]

For acute ankle sprains, manual joint mobilization/manipulation of the ankle has been found to diminish pain and increase range of motion. For treatment of subacute/chronic lateral ankle sprains, these techniques improved ankle range-of-motion, decreased pain and improved function.[23]

To prevent sprains or re-injury from occurring, strengthening and stretching exercises should be done through a full range of ankle motion. To improve ankle mobility, ankle circles can be performed by extending the legs in front of the body and then moving the foot up and down, side to side, or rotating the foot in a circle. Another common exercise to improve mobility, as well as proprioception, is to use the toes to draw the letters of the alphabet in the air. Most importantly, the lateral aspect of the ankle joint should be strengthened with eversion exercises (i.e., underside of the foot is turned outward against resistance) to improve lateral ankle stability.[24] Stretching is also an important component of a strengthening program, to help maintain joint flexibility.

Balance and stability training are especially important to retrain the ankle muscles to work together to support the joint.[25] This includes exercises that are performed by standing on one foot and using the injured ankle to lift the body onto its toes. To further enhance balance and stability, exercise devices such as the wobble board can be used, progressing from double-leg to single-leg stance, first with eyes open and then with eyes closed, for enhanced effectiveness.

An example of a flexibility exercise is a towel stretch [26] and writing the alphabet with toes which will increase the range of motion.

Ankle strengthening exercises are step ups and walking on toes which will strengthen the muscles around the swollen area.

Balance exercises include the use of a balance board, which helps the whole body function to maintain balance. The use of balance boards has been shown to produce significantly positive results in gaining proper balance.[27]

Rehabilitation Exercises for an ankle sprain

Plyometrics exercises such as squat jumps and power skipping should not be implemented until the ankle has regained full agility.

Other strategies that can be used to prevent ankle injury include:

• Ensure proper warm-up prior to stretching and activity;
• When running, choose level surfaces and avoid rocks or holes;
• Ensure that shoes have adequate heel support;
• If high-heeled shoes are worn, ensure that heels are no more than 2 inches in height, and avoid heels with a narrow base.

When an ankle sprain occurs, subsequent ankle sprains are much more likely to follow.[30] The rate of recurrence is particularly high for athletes in high-risk sports.[31] The most widely recommended preventative measures for recurring sprains are wearing ankle-protective gear[32] (tape, or ankle brace) and implementing exercises designed to strengthen the ankle and improve one's balance (e.g., balance ball exercises). In a review article of ankle sprain prevention research, the authors reference a season-long study on a group of soccer players. 60 players wore ankle-protective (tape or ankle-braces) throughout the soccer season, and another 171 players were enrolled in the control group, as they wore no ankle protective gear. At the end of the season, 17% of the players who did not wear ankle braces/tape sprained their ankles, while only 3% of the players who wore protection incurred the same injury. Amongst the players who sprained their ankles and did not wear ankle-protective gear, 25% had a history of previous ankle sprains.[33] Another peer-reviewed article references a study which concluded that ankle exercising could decrease the risk of recurring sprains by 11%.[34]

In a study comparing the prevalence of ankle sprains between age, race, and sex, individuals who were aged 10–19 years old had highest instances of ankle sprains.[35] It can be suggested that adolescents are more physically active, which leads to higher chances of ankle sprains. Since sports deal with high utilization of the ankle, over 50% of ankle sprains are due to sport-related injuries.[36]

Ankle sprain incident rates of average males to females

Moreover, average ankle sprains for the general U.S. population are estimated at 5–7 ankle sprains for every 1000 person-years; however, a study showed that for military cadets, instances for ankle sprains were about 10 times those of the general population [37]

Another study comparing sex influences on ankle sprains found that male and female counterparts had similar incidence rates of ankle sprains. However, at a specific age range of 19–25 years old, males were found to have a substantially greater rate of ankle sprains than females. Furthermore, at ages 30 and over, females showed a higher incidence of ankle sprains than males.[29] From this, it can be said that age and activity levels are better indicators of ankle sprain risks than gender.