Theory of Basic Human Values

The Theory of Basic Human Values recognize ten universal values, which can be organised in four higher-order groups. Each of the ten universal values has a central goal that is the underlying motivator.[1][2]

In addition to identifying the ten basic values, the theory also explains how these ten values are interconnected and influence each other, since the pursuit of any of the values results in either an accordance with one another (conformity and security) or a conflict with at least one other value (benevolence and power). Tradition and conformity share particularly similar motivational goals and consequently are consolidated in the same wedge. Values can lightly or more strongly oppose each other, which has led to the organisation of the values in a circular structure along two bipolar dimensions. The first dimension is openness to change versus conservation, which contrasts independence and obedience. The second bipolar dimension is self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and is concerned on the one side with the interests of one-self and on the other side of the welfare of others.[1]

Although the theory distinguishes ten values, the borders between the motivators are artificial and one value flows into the next, which can be seen by the following shared motivational emphases:

1. Power and Achievement—social superiority and esteem;
2. Achievement and Hedonism—self-centred satisfaction;
3. Hedonism and Stimulation—a desire for affectively pleasant arousal;
4. Stimulation and Self-direction—intrinsic interest in novelty and mastery;
5. Self-direction and Universalism—reliance upon one's own judgement and comfort with the diversity of existence;
6. Universalism and Benevolence—enhancement of others and transcendence of selfish interests;
7. Benevolence and Tradition—devotion to one's in-group;
8. Benevolence and Conformity—normative behaviour that promotes close relationships;
9. Conformity and Tradition—subordination of self in favour of socially imposed expectations;
10. Tradition and Security—preserving existing social arrangements that give certainty to life;
11. Conformity and Security—protection of order and harmony in relations;
12. Security and Power—avoiding or overcoming threats by controlling relationships and resources.

Furthermore, people are still able to follow opposing values through acting differently in different settings or at different times. The structure of Schwartz's 10-value type model (see graph above) has been supported across over 80 countries,[1][5][6] gender,[7] various methods such as importance ratings of values (using the surveys listed below), direct similarity judgment tasks, pile sorting, and spatial arrangement,[8] and even for how the values of other people, such as family members, are perceived.[9][10]

Several models have been developed to measure the basic values to ensure that the values theory is valid independent of the methodology employed. The main differentiator between the Schwartz Value Survey and the Portrait Values Questionnaire is that the former is explicit, while the latter is implicit.

One of the main limitations of this theory lies in the methodology of the research. The SVS is quite difficult to answer, because respondents have to first read the set of 30 value items and give one value the highest as well as the lowest ranking (0 or −1, depending on whether an item is opposed to their values). Hence, completing one questionnaire takes approximately 12 minutes resulting in a significant amount of only half-filled in forms.[12] Furthermore, many respondents have a tendency to give the majority of the values a high score, resulting in a skewed responses to the upper end.[13] However, this issue can be mitigated by providing respondents with an additional filter to evaluate the items they marked with high scores. When administering the Schwartz Value Survey in a coaching setting, respondents are coached to distinguish between a "must-have" value and a "meaningful" value. A "must-have" value is a value you have acted on or thought about in the previous 24 hours (this value item would receive a score of 6 or 7 on the Schwartz scale). A "meaningful" value is something you have acted on or thought about recently, but not in the previous 24 hours (this value item would receive a score of 5 or less).[14]

Another methodological limitations are the resulting ordinal, ipsatised scores that limit the type of useful analyses researchers can perform.[15]

Recent studies advocate that values can influence the audience's reaction to advertising appeals.[16] Moreover, in the case that a choice and a value are intervened, people tend to pick the choice that aligns more with their own values. Therefore, models such as the Theory of Basic Human Values could be seen as increasingly important for international marketing campaigns, as they can help to understand values and how values vary between cultures. This becomes especially true as it has been shown that values are one of the most powerful explanations of consumer behaviour.[17] Understanding the different values and underlying defining goals can also help organisations to better motivate staff in an increasingly international workforce and create an according organizational structure.

Recently, Schwartz's work—and that of Geert Hofstede—has been applied to economics research. Specifically, the performance of the economies as it relates to entrepreneurship and business (firm) creation. This has significant implications to economic growth and might help explain why some countries are lagging behind others when labor, natural resources, and governing institutions are equal. This is a relatively new field of study in economics, however the recent empirical results suggest that culture plays a significant role in the success of entrepreneurial efforts across countries—even ones with largely similar governmental structures. Francisco Liñán and José Fernandez-Serrano found that these cultural attributes accounted for 60% of the difference in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) variance per capita in countries within the European Union (EU).[18]

• Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world
• Rokeach Value Survey
• Self-expression values
• World Values Survey