Uganda Army (1962–1971)

Uganda's first post-independence military originated as cadres of the King's African Rifles, colonial troops who were organized to secure several British colonies in Africa.[1][2] The British preferred to recruit members of certain ethnic groups for the military, regarding some Ugandan peoples as "martial races", while also exploiting and creating ethnic rivalries.[2][3] As a result, soldiers from northern Uganda were dominant in the colonial army. Nubians were especially overrepresented,[2] although their numbers dwindled over time.[4] Ugandan King's African Rifles had served in various conflicts on behalf of the United Kingdom, including World War I, World War II,[5] and the Mau Mau Uprising in neighboring Kenya.[2]

As Uganda approached its independence from the United Kingdom, the 4th Battalion, King's African Rifles, at Jinja,[2] was transformed into the country's first military force, the 1st Battalion Uganda Rifles. It counted just 700 soldiers at this point, but was rapidly expanded by enlisting volunteers.[6] The national military was renamed to "Uganda Army" on 1 August 1962,[7] and the country officially became independent on 9 October 1962.[1]

By July 1963, the army had grown to 1,500. Uganda continued to cooperate with the United Kingdom in military matters, and most of the early Ugandan officers were trained in the United Kingdom, while equipment was also of British origin.[6] Considering various security threats, posed by local militant resistance groups such as the Rwenzururu movement,[8] and potential threats from the Congo and Sudan, the country's military was further expanded through the establishment of a 2nd Battalion in 1964. By this point, Uganda also enlisted Israeli help in training and arming its forces.[9]

Uganda Army OT-64 SKOT APCs, Ferret armoured cars, and jeeps in the late 1960s

On 23 January 1964, the 1st Battalion mutinied following similar mutinies in Kenya and Tanzania. The soldiers were upset about the conditions of their service, and the Ugandan government was only able to put down the mutineers with British assistance. Several demands by the soldiers were subsequently met, including an increase in pay as well as the Africanisation of the officers. As a result of the latter agreement, Idi Amin was appointed commander of the 1st Battalion,[10] while Shaban Opolot was made Army Commander.[11] The mutiny also strongly impacted national politics, as Obote's government increasingly viewed the military as a potential threat as well as asset. In April 1964, the General Service Unit (GSU) was set up as a militarised intelligence agency and bodyguards to protect the government from civilian and military threats.[10][12] In addition, Obote decided to not only africanize the officer corps, but also reduce cooperation with the British military in general so that the latter had less leverage in Uganda.[12] In late July 1964, the British Army completely withdrew from the country, while cooperation with Israel was increased to set up armoured forces well as an air force for the Uganda Army.[10][13]

While these internal developments affected the military, Uganda was drawn into the Simba rebellion of the Congo. Prime Minister Obote's government supported the Simba rebels, and Uganda Army soldiers occasionally fought alongside the Congolese insurgents against the Congo's Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC).[14] Border clashes between the two countries took place in 1964,[15] and the Congolese even launched air attacks on two Ugandan villages. Obote responded by further expanding in Uganda Army,[14][16] as the 3rd Battalion was set up in February and the 4th Battalion in March 1965.[10] There were also reports about Ugandan troops crossing the border in a raid targeting Mahagi and Bunia in retaliation for the Congolese air attacks.[17]

By July 1965, the Uganda Army counted 4,500 troops and organized its 1st Brigade.[10] In 1966, political tensions between Prime Minister Obote and President Mutesa II of Buganda led to the Mengo Crisis, culminating in Obote deposing Mutesa in a violent coup. Uganda Army troops under Amin assaulted Mutesa's palace, overpowering and killing his guards, resulting in his flight into exile. Obote consequently assumed the presidency,[18] and increased the military budget, acquiring more heavy equipment and deepening military ties with the Eastern Bloc.[10] He rewarded soldiers who remained loyal to him during the crisis, and used the expanded budget to disburse patronage to increase his following in the army.[19]

The military continued to grow in the following years: The Military Police, the Paratrooper Battalion, the Border Guard Unit, the 5th Mechanised Regiment, and the 2nd Brigade were organized, and the entire Uganda Army consisted of about 9,800 soldiers by 1968, of which only 200 were officers. Northerners remained dominant at about 61%, whereas 22% were from the eastern and 12% from the western parts of Uganda.[10] Unrest and infighting also significantly worsened among the military, as Obote and Amin had become rivals and attempted to dominate the Uganda Army by recruiting partisans supportive of their political factions. Although these factions did not completely correspond to ethnicities, Amin found most of his support among troops from the West Nile Region and migrants from Sudan as well as Zaire, whereas Obote was mainly aided by Acholi and Langi soldiers. This development resulted in growing ethnic tensions within the army.[20][4] Although Obote initially succeeded in maintaining control of the military by placing important positions in the hands of Langi, his policies alienated members of other ethnicities. The West Nile troops felt especially underprivileged, and even the Acholi soldiers felt that the President was unduly favoring Langi in regard to promotions.[21]

Obote's government appointed Suleiman Hussein as new Uganda Army Chief of Staff on 29 September 1970,[22] relegating Amin to head of a military training center.[23] Although Hussein was an ethnic Alur and thereby a West Nile tribesman,[22] the West Nile soldiers had begun to associate their fortunes with those of Amin, as the latter had begun to present himself as their champion and protector.[21] Accordingly, Amin's removal led to considerable opposition, which the officer exploited by rallying several anti-Obote factions in the Uganda Army and among the civilian elite to his cause. The tensions escalated in January 1971, when West Nile troops launched coup d'état that resulted in Amin's seizure of power in the country. A military dictatorship with Amin as President was consequently established.[23]

In the coup's immediate aftermath, several Uganda Army units remained loyal to Obote, but failed to quickly respond to Amin's seizure of power. In a matter of weeks, the pro-coup troops mostly crushed the pro-Obote troops in a series of violent clashes, arrests, and selective purges.[24][25] In response, many Acholi and Langi soldiers deserted to link up with Obote in exile.[26] When hundreds of deserters were captured at the Sudanese border in April 1971, showcasing just how many troops were illoyal and possibly joining an exile army supportive of Obote, President Amin's government reacted by initiating purges of all suspected dissidents in the military. Instead of selective actions, entire groups of soldiers were massacred.[25] About 5,000 Acholi and Langi soldiers were killed or forcibly disappeared in the next months.[18] Journalist Patrick Keatley estimated that as much as two thirds of the original military personnel were killed within a year.[27] Amin replaced the purged troops by mass recruiting people regarded as loyal to his regime, mostly West Nile tribesmen.[28][3]

After his loyalists in the Uganda Army had been mostly killed, Obote attempted to organize a guerrilla force to regain power using the troops who had managed to flee Uganda.[29][25] Obote's rebels were initially provided with bases in Sudan and Tanzania, although the former expelled them in May 1972.[29][30] The anti-Amin rebels launched an invasion of Uganda in late 1972, but were defeated by the Uganda Army.[31] The Ugandan government consequently intensified purges of internal opponents, including those in the military. These purges alongside mass recruitment of new troops and the patronage system which Amin implemented to keep the army loyal resulted in growing unrest and corruption within the Uganda Army. Elements in the military repeatedly attempted to overthrow the President,[32] while exile factions including Obote's attempted to facilitate coups or rebellions by organizing guerilla attacks and mobilizing discontented soldiers.[33] The Tanzania-based militant group loyal to Obote was eventually named Kikosi Maalum ("Special Force");[34] most of its members were ex-Uganda Army officers by 1978.[35]

After Uganda's independence, there were three main regional/ethnic groups in the military: The largest number were northerners, mostly Langi, Acholi, Teso, and a minority of West Nile origin;[4][36] a minority of Bantu, mostly Baganda, who played an important part in the officer corps as they had advantages in education as a result of British colonial politics; and a small number of Nubians. After Obote overthrew Mutesa II, he purged the army of most Bantu officers and a significant number of Teso troops.[4] Afterwards, the military was dominated by Langi, Acholi, and West Nile people whose members were eventually drawn into the Obote-Amin rivalry.[4] Obote consequently enlisted an increasing number of Langi.[21] By 1971, most Uganda Army troops were Langi, Acholi, and Teso, while soldiers belonging to West Nile peoples constituted a minority.[36]