Vedic Sanskrit grammar

Vedic Sanskrit is the Indo-Aryan language used in the religious hymns known as the Vedas, composed from the early-to-mid 2nd millennium through to the mid 1st millennium, BCE. It was a spoken language during that period. Its grammar differs in certain respects from the grammar of the later Classical Sanskrit.

Differences from Classical Sanskrit

Compared with Classical Sanskrit, Vedic had a subjunctive mood absent in Pāṇini's grammar and generally believed to have disappeared by then at least in common sentence constructions. All tenses could be conjugated in the subjunctive and optative moods, in contrast to Classical Sanskrit, with no subjunctive and only a present optative. However, the old first-person subjunctive forms were used to complete the Classical Sanskrit imperative. The three synthetic past tenses (imperfect, perfect and aorist) were still clearly distinguished semantically in (at least the earliest) Vedic. A fifth mood, the injunctive, also existed.

Long-i stems differentiate the Devi and Vrkis feminines, a difference lost in Classical Sanskrit.

  • The subjunctive mood of Vedic was also lost in Classical Sanskrit. Also, there was no fixed rule about the use of various tenses (luṇ, laṇ and liṭ).
  • There were more than 12 ways of forming infinitives in Vedic, of which Classical Sanskrit retained only one form.
  • Nominal declinations and verbal conjugation also changed pronunciation, although the spelling was mostly retained in Classical Sanskrit. E.g., along with the Classical Sanskrit's declension of deva- as devaḥdevaudevāḥ, Vedic additionally allowed the forms daivaḥdaivādaivāsaḥ. Similarly Vedic has declined forms such as asmai, tvai, yuṣmai, tvā, etc. for the first and second person pronouns, not found in Classical Sanskrit. The obvious reason is the attempt of Classical Sanskrit to regularize and standardize its grammar, which simultaneously led to a purge of older Proto-Indo-European forms.
  • To emphasize that Proto-Indo-European and its immediate daughters were essentially end-inflected languages, both Proto-Indo-European and Vedic had independent prefix-morphemes. Such prefixes (especially for verbs) could come anywhere in the sentence, but in Classical Sanskrit, it became mandatory to attach them immediately before the verb.

Morphology

Nouns

Vedic is a highly inflected language with three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, dual). It has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative.

In this article nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension which a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.

The basic declension suffix scheme for nouns and adjectives

The basic scheme is given in the table below — valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the ending consonant/vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are predetermined rules of compulsory sandhi which would then give the final inflected word.[1]

SingularDualPlural
Nominative -ः (-Ø)
-ḥ (-Ø)
-ौ (-ी)
-āu (-ī)
-ाः (-ि)
-aḥ (-i)
Vocative
Accusative -म (-Ø)
-m (-Ø)
Instrumental -ा
-भ्याम्
-bhyām
-भिः
-bhiḥ
Dative -े
-ai
-भयः
-bhyaḥ
Ablative -ः
-aḥ
Genitive -ोः
-auḥ
-ाम्
-ām
Locative -ि
-i
-ोः
-auḥ
-सु
-su

a-stems

A-stems ([a] and [ɑː]) (also known as thematic stems) comprise the largest class of nouns. As a rule, nouns belonging to this class, with the uninflected stem ending in short-a ([a]), are either masculine or neuter. Nouns ending in long-ā ([ɑː]) are almost always feminine. A-stem adjectives take the masculine and neuter in short-a ([a]), and feminine in long-ā ([ɑː]) in their stems. This class is so big because it also comprises the Proto-Indo-European o-stems.

Masculine (वीर vīrá 'man, hero') Neuter (हव्य​ havyá 'sacrificial oblation') Feminine (इळा íḷā 'refreshing draught, libation')
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
Nominative वीरः
vīráḥ
वीरौ
vīrā́ú
वीराः
vīrā́ḥ (°ā́saḥ)
हव्यम्
havyám
हव्यो
havyáu
हव्या, हव्यानि
havyā́, havyā́ni
इळा
íḷā
इळे
íḷai
इळाः
ílāḥ
Vocative वीर​
vī́ra
हव्य​
hávya
हव्ये
hávyai
इळे
íḷai
Accusative वीरम्
vīrám
वीरान्
vīrā́n
हव्यम्
havyám
इळाम्
íḷām
Instrumental वीरेण, वीरा
vīráiṇa, vīrā́
वीराभ्याम्
vīrā́bhyām
वीरैः, वीरेभिः
vīrāíḥ, vīráibhiḥ
हव्येन, हव्या
havyáina, havyā́
हव्याभ्याम्
havyā́bhyām
हव्यैः, हव्येभिः
havyāíḥ, havyáibhiḥ
इळा, इळया
íḷā, íḷayā
इळाभ्याम्
íḷābhyām
इळाभिः
íḷābhiḥ
Dative वीराय​
vīrā́ya
वीरेभ्यः
vīráibhyaḥ
हव्याय​
havyā́ya
हव्येभ्यः
havyáibhyaḥ
इळायै
íḷāyai
इळाभ्यः
íḷābhyaḥ
Ablative वीरात्
vīrā́t
हवयात्
havyā́t
इळायाः
íḷāyāḥ
Genitive वीरस्य
vīrásya
वीरयोः
vīráyauḥ
वीराणाम्
vīrā́ṇām
हव्यस्य​
havyásya
हव्ययोः
havyáyauḥ
हव्यानाम्
havyā́nām
इळयोः
íḷayauḥ
इळानाम्
íḷānām
Locative वीरे
vīrái
वीरेषु
vīráiṣu
हव्ये
havyái
हव्येषु
havyáiṣu
इळायाम्
íḷāyām
इळाषु
íḷāṣu

i- and u-stems

i-stems
Masc. (पति
pati 'host, husband')
Neuter (वारि
vāri 'water')
Fem. (मति
mati 'thought')
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
Nominative पतिः
patis
पती
patī
पतयः
patayas
वारि
vāri
वारिणी
vāriṇī
मतिः
matis
मती
matī
मतयः
matayas
Vocative पते
patai
वारि, वारे
vāri, vārai
मते
matai
Accusative पतिम्
patim
पती
patī
पतीन्
patīn
वारि
vāri
मतिम्
matim
मतीः
matīs
Instrumental पतिना
patinā
पतिभ्याम्
patibhyām
पतिभिः
patibhis
वारिणा
vāriṇā
वारिभ्याम्
vāribhyām
वारिभिः
vāribhis
मत्या
matyā
मतिभ्याम्
matibhyām
मतिभिः
matibhis
Dative पतये
patayai
पतिभ्यः
patibhyas
वारिणे
vāriṇai
वारिभ्यः
vāribhyas
मत्यै
matyāi
मतिभ्यः
matibhyas
Ablative पतेः
patais
वारिणः
vāriṇas
मत्याः
matyās
Genitive पत्योः
patyaus
पतीनाम्
patīnām
वारिणोः
vāriṇaus
वारिणाम्
vāriṇām
मत्योः
matyaus
मतीनाम्
matīnām
Locative पतौ
patāu
पतिषु
patiṣu
वारिणी
vāriṇi
वारिषु
vāriṣu
मत्याम्
matyām
मतिषु
matiṣu
u-stems
Masc. (वायु vāyu 'wind') Neuter (मधु madhu 'honey') Fem. (शत्रु śatru 'she-enemy')
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
Nominative वायुः
vāyus
वायू
vāyū
वायवः
vāyavas
मधु
madhu
मधुनी
madhunī
शत्रुः
śatrus
शत्रू
śatrū
शत्रवः
śatravas
Vocative वायो
vāyau
शत्रो
śatrau
Accusative वायुम्
vāyum
वायुन्
vāyūn
शत्रुन्
śatrum
शत्रूः
śatrūs
Instrumental वायुणा
vāyuṇā
वायुभ्याम्
vāyubhyām
वायुभिः
vāyubhis
मधुना
madhunā
मधुभ्याम्
madhubhyām
मधुभिः
madhubhis
शत्र्वा
śatrvā
शत्रुभ्याम्
śatrubhyām
शत्रुभिः
śatrubhis
Dative वायवे
vāyavai
वायुभ्यः
vāyubhyas
मधुनै
madhunai
मधुभ्यः
madhubhyas
शर्त्र्वै
śatrvāi
शत्रुभ्यः
śatrubhyas
Ablative वायोः
vāyaus
मधुनः
madhunas
शत्र्वाः
śatrvās
शत्रुभ्यः
śatrubhyas
Genitive वाय्वोः
vāyvaus
वायूनाम्
vāyūnām
मधुनोः
madhunaus
मधूनाम्
madhūnām
शत्र्वोः
śatrvaus
शत्रूणाम्
śatrūṇām
Locative वायौ
vāyāu
वायुषु
vāyuṣu
मधुनि
madhuni
मधुषु
madhuṣu
शत्र्वाम्
śatrvām
शत्रुषु
śatruṣu

ī- and ū -stems

Ī- and ū -stems are only feminine.

ī-stems (पत्नी patnī 'hostess, wife') ū-stems (वधू vadhū 'bride')
SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural
Nominative पत्नी
patnī
पत्न्यौ
patnyāu
पत्न्यः
patnyas
वधूः
vadhūs
वधवौ
vadhvāu
वध्वः
vadhvas
Vocative पत्नि
patni
वधु
vadhu
Accusative पत्नीम्
patnīm
पत्नीस्
patnīs
वधूम्
vadhūm
वधूस्
vadhūs
Instrumental पत्न्या
patnyā
पत्नीभ्याम्
patnībhyām
पत्नीभिः
patnībhis
वध्वा
vadhvā
वधूभ्याम्
vadhūbhyām
वधूभिः
vadhūbhis
Dative पत्न्यै
patnyāi
पत्नीब्यस्
patnībhyas
वध्वै
vadhvāi
वधूभ्यः
vadhūbhyas
Ablative पत्न्याः
patnyās
वध्वाः
vadhvās
Genitive पत्न्योः
patnyaus
पत्नीनाम्
patnīnām
वध्वोः
vadhvaus
वधूनाम्
vadhūnām
Locative पत्न्याम्
patnyām
पत्नीषु
patnīṣu
वध्वाम्
vadhvām
वधूषु
vadhūṣu

and -stems

-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like neut. dātṛ 'giver', though also include kinship terms like masc. pitṛ 'father', naptṛ 'nephew', bhrātṛ" 'brother' and fem. mātṝ 'mother', duhitṝ 'daughter' and svasṝ 'sister'.

Masculine (पितृ​ pitṛ 'father') Neuter (दातृ dātṛ 'giver') Feminine (मातृ mātṝ 'mother')
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
Nominative पित
pita
पितरौ
pitarāu
पितरः
pitaras
दातृ
dātṛ
दातृणी
dātṛṇī
माता
mātā
मातारौ
mātārāu
मातारः
mātāras
Vocative पितर्
pítar
मातार्
mātār
Accusative पितरम्
pitaram
पितॄन्
pitṝn
मातारम्
mātāram
मातॄः
mātṝs
Instrumental पित्रा
pitrā
पितॄभ्याम्
pitṛbhyām
पितृभिः
pitṛbhis
दातृण​
dātṛṇā
दातृर्भ्याम्
dātṛbhyām
दातृभिः
dātṛbhis
मातारा
mātārā
मातॄभ्याम्
mātṝbhyām
मातॄभिः
mātṝbhis
Dative पित्रे
pitrai
पितृभ्यः
pitṛbhyas
दातृणे
dātṛṇai
दातृभ्यः
dātṛbhyas
मातारै
mātārai
मातृभ्यः
mātṝbhyas
Ablative पितुर्, पित्रः
pitur, pitras
दातृणः
dātṛṇas
मातारः
mātāras
Genitive पित्रोः
pitraus
पितॄणाम्
pitṝṇām
दातृणोः
dātṛṇaus
दातृणाम्
dātṝṇām
मातरोः
mātaraus
मातॄणाम्
mātṝṇām
Locative पितरि
pitari
पितृषु
pitṛṣu
दातृणि
dātṛṇi
दातृषु
dātṛṣu
माताराम्
mātārām
मातॄषु
mātṝṣu

Monosyllabic stems

Long vowel stems
ā-stems (जा 'prodigy') ī-stems (स्त्री strī 'woman, wife') ū-stems (भू bhū 'earth')
SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural
Nominative जाः
jās
जौ
jāu
जाः
jās
स्त्रीः
strīs
स्त्रियौ
striyāu
स्त्रियः
striyas
भूः
bhūs
भुवौ
bhuvāu
भुवः
bhuvas
Vocative
Accusative जाम्
jām
जाः, जः
jās, jas
स्त्रियम्
striyam
भुवम्
bhuvam
Instrumental जाम्
जाभ्याम्
jābhyām
जाभिः
jābhis
स्त्रिय
striyā
स्त्रीभ्याम्
strībhyām
स्त्रीभिः
strībhis
भुवा
bhuvā
भूब्याम्
bhūbhyām
भूभिः
bhūbhis
Dative जे
jai
जाभ्यः
jābhyas
स्त्रिये, स्त्रियै
striyai, striyāi
स्त्रीभ्यः
strībhyas
भुवे, भुवै
bhuvai, bhuvāi
भूभ्यः
bhūbhyas
Ablative जः
jas
स्त्रियः, स्त्रियाः
striyas, striyās
भुवः, भुवाः
bhuvas, bhuvās
Genitive जौः
jaus
जानाम्, जाम्
jānām, jām
स्त्रियौः
striyaus
स्त्रियाम्, स्त्रीनाम्
striyām, strīnām
भुवौः
bhuvaus
भुवाम्, भूनाम्
bhuvām, bhūnām
Locative जि, जाम्
ji, jām
जासु
jāsu
स्त्रियि, स्त्रियाम्
striyi, striyām
स्त्रीषु
strīṣu
भुवि, भुवाम्
bhuvi, bhuvām
भूषु
bhūṣu
Diphthong stems
āu-stems (नौ nāu 'ship, boat') au-stems (गो gau 'cow, bull')
SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural
Nominative नौः
nāus
नावौ
nāvāu
नावः
nāvas
गौः
gāus
गावौ
gāvāu
गावः
gāvas
Vocative
Accusative नावम्
nāvam
नावः
nāvas
गावम्, गाम्
gāvam, gām
गावः, गाः
gāvas, gās
Instrumental नावा
nāvā
नौभ्याम्
nāubhyām
नौभिः
nāubhis
गवा
gavā
गोभ्याम्
gaubhyām
गोभिः
gaubhis
Dative नवै
nāvai
नौभ्यः
nāubhyas
गवै
gavai
गोभ्यः
gaubhyas
Ablative नावः
nāvas
गवः, गोः
gavas, gaus
Genitive नवोः
nāvaus
नावाम्
nāvām
गवोः
gavaus
गवाम्
gavām
Locative नावि, नावाम्
nāvi, nāvām
नौषु
nāuṣu
गवि, गवाम्
gavi, gavām
गोषु
gauṣu

Compounds

One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as German. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include:

Dvandva द्वन्द्व​ (co-ordinative)
These consist of two or more noun stems, connected in sense with 'and'. There are mainly two kinds of dvandva द्वन्द्व​ constructions in Sanskrit. The first is called itaraitara dvandva इतरेतर द्वन्द्व, an enumerative compound word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. e.g. rāma-lakṣmaṇāu रामलक्ष्मणौ – Rama and Lakshmana, or rāma-lakṣmaṇa-bharata-śatrughnāh रामलक्ष्मणभरतशत्रुघ्नाह् – Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna. The second kind is called samāhāra dvandva समाहार द्वन्द्व​, a collective compound word, the meaning of which refers to the collection of its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the singular number and is always neuter in gender. e.g. pāṇipādam पाणिपादम् – limbs, literally hands and feet, from pāṇi पाणि 'hand' and pāda पाद​ 'foot'. According to some grammarians, there is a third kind of dvandva, called aikaśaiṣa dvandva एकशेष द्वन्द्व or residual compound, which takes the dual (or plural) form of only its final constituent member, e.g. pitarau for mātā + pitā, mother + father, i.e. parents. According to other grammarians, however, the aikaśaiṣa एकशेष is not properly a compound at all.
Bahuvrīhi बहुव्रीहि (possessive)
Bahuvrīhi बहुव्रीहि, or "much-rice", denotes a rich person—one who has much rice. Bahuvrīhi compounds refer (by example) to a compound noun with no head -- a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound. For example, "low-life" and "block-head" are bahuvrihi compounds, since a low-life is not a kind of life, and a block-head is not a kind of head. (And a much-rice is not a kind of rice.) Compare with more common, headed, compound nouns like "fly-ball" (a kind of ball) or "alley cat" (a kind of cat). Bahurvrīhis can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice", or "much riced".
Tatpuruṣa तत्पुरुष (determinative)
There are many tatpuruṣas (one for each of the nominal cases, and a few others besides); in a tatpuruṣa, the first component is in a case relationship with another. For example, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house for a dog. It would be called a "caturthitatpuruṣa" चतुर्थितत्पुरुष​ (caturthi चतुर्थि refers to the fourth case—that is, the dative). Incidentally, "tatpuruṣa" is a tatpuruṣa तत्पुरुष ("his man"—meaning someone's agent), while "caturthitatpuruṣa" चतुर्थितत्पुरुष is a karmadhārya, being both dative, and a tatpuruṣa. An easy way to understand it is to look at English examples of tatpuruṣas: "battlefield", where there is a genitive relationship between "field" and "battle", "a field of battle"; other examples include instrumental relationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling").
Karmadhāraya कर्मधारय​ (descriptive)
The relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial, e. g. uluka-yatu उलुकयतु (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl.
Amraiḍita अम्रेडित​ (iterative)
Repetition of a word expresses repetitiveness, e. g. dinai dinai दिनेदिने 'day by day', 'day after day', 'daily'.
Dvigu द्विगु
Dvigu is a subtype of tatpuruṣa in which the modifying member is a number. Dvigu (lit., "[a] two-cow [person]"; i.e., one who has two cows) itself is a compound : द्वो+गवौ dvau+gāvau.

Personal pronouns and determiners

The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by analogy assimilated themselves with one another.

Note: Where two forms are given, the second is enclitic and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -tas; thus mat or mattas, asmat or asmattas.

First Person Second Person Third Person
SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural Singular
Nominative अहम्
aham
आवाम्
āvām
वयम् (अस्माः)
vayam (asmās)
त्वम्
tvam
युवाम्
yuvām
यूयम् (युष्माः)
yūyam (yuṣmās)
स्वम्
svam
Accusative माम्, मा
mām, mā
आवाम्, नौ
āvām, nāu
अस्मान्, नः
asmān, nas
त्वाम्, त्वा
tvām, tvā
युवाम्, वाम्
yuvām, vām
युष्मान्, वः
yuṣmān, vas
स्वाम्, स्वा
svām, svā
Instrumental मया
mayā
आवाभ्याम्
āvābhyām
अस्माभिः
asmābhis
त्वया
tvayā
युवाभ्याम्
yuvābhyām
युष्माभिः
yuṣmābhis
स्वया
svayā
Dative मह्यम्, मे
mahyam, mai
आवाभ्याम्, नौ
āvābhyām, nāu
अस्मभ्यम्, (अस्मभ्यः), नः
asmabhyam, (asmabhyas), nas
तुभ्यम्, ते
tubhyam, tai
युवाभ्याम्, वाम्
yuvābhyām, vām
युष्मभ्यम्, (युष्मभ्यः), वः
yuṣmabhyam, (yuṣmabhyas), vas
सुभ्यम्, से
subhyam, sai
Ablative मत्
mat
आवाभ्याम्
āvābhyām
अस्मत्, (अस्मभ्यः)
asmat, (asmabhyas)
मत्
tvat
युवाभ्याम्
yuvābhyām
युष्मत्, (युष्मभ्यः)
yuṣmat, (yuṣmabhyas)
स्वत्
svat
Genitive मम​, मे
mama, mai
आवयोः, नौ
āvayaus, nāu
अस्माकम्, नः
asmākam, nas
तव​, ते
tava, tai
युवयोः, वाम्
yuvayaus, vām
युष्माकम्, वः
yuṣmākam, vas
सव​, से
sava, sai
Locative मयि
mayi
आवयोस्
āvayaus
अस्मासु
asmāsu
त्वयि
tvayi
युवयोः
yuvayaus
युष्मासु
yuṣmāsu
स्वयि
svayi

The demonstrative ta, declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.

Masculine Neuter Feminine
SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural SingularDualPlural
Nominative तः, सः
tas, sas
तौ
tāu
ते
tai
तत्
tat
ते
tai
तानि
tāni
ता, सा
tā, sā
ते
tai
तः
tās
Accusative तम्
tam
तौ
tāu
तान्
tān
तत्
tat
ते
tai
तानि
tāni
तम्
tām
ते
tai
ताः
tās
Instrumental तेन
taina
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
तेभ्यिः, तैः
taibhis, tāis
तेन
taina
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
तेभिः, तैः
taibhis, tāis
तया
tayā
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
ताभिः
tābhis
Dative तस्मै
tasmāi
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
तेभ्यः
taibhyas
तस्मै
tasmāi
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
तेभ्यः
taibhyas
तस्यै
tasyāi
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
ताभ्यः
tābhyas
Ablative तस्मात्
tasmāt
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
तेभ्यः
taibhyas
तस्मात्
tasmāt
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
तेभ्यः
taibhyas
तस्याः
tasyās
ताभ्याम्
tābhyām
ताभ्यः
tābhyas
Genitive तस्य(:)
tasya(s)
तयोः
tayaus
तेषाम्
taiṣām
तस्य(:)
tasya(s)
तयोः
tayaus
तेषाम्
taiṣām
तस्याः
tasyās
तयोः
tayaus
तासाम्
tāsām
Locative तस्मिन्
tasmin
तयोः
tayaus
तेषु
taiṣu
तस्मिन्
tasmin
तयोः
tayaus
तेषुः
taiṣu
तस्याम्
tasyām
तयोः
tayaus
तेषु
tāsu

Interrogative pronoun ka 'what' is declined in the same way, except neuter Sg.Nom./Acc. having kim (also kam, kad) form.

Cardinal numbers

The cardinal numbers from one to ten are:

  1. aika
  2. d(u)vāu
  3. tri
  4. catur
  5. pañca
  6. ṣaṣ
  7. sapta
  8. aṣṭāu
  9. nava
  10. daśa

All numbers are declinable. Aika is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. D(u)vāu appears only in the dual. Tri, catur and ṣaṣ are declined irregularly. The numbers from 5 to 19 do not have any difference in genders.

Two Three Four Six
MasculineNeuterFeminineMasculineNeuterFeminineMasculineNeuterFeminineM.N.F.
Nominative dvāudvaidvaitrayastrīṇitisráscatvā́rascatvā́ricatasrasṣaṭ
Accusative dvāudvaidvaitrīntrīṇitisráscatúrascatvā́ricatasrasṣaṭ
Instrumental dvābhyāmdvābhyāmdvābhyāmtribhístribhístisṛ́bhiscatúrbhiscatúrbhiscatasṛ́bhisṣaḍbhis
Dative dvābhyāmdvābhyāmdvābhyāmtribhyástribhyástisṛ́bhyascatúrbhyascatúrbhyascatasṛ́bhyasṣaḍbhyas
Ablative dvābhyāmdvābhyāmdvābhyāmtribhyástribhyástisṛ́bhyascatúrbhyascatúrbhyascatasṛ́bhyasṣaḍbhyas
Genitive dvayausdvayausdvayaustriyāṇā́mtriyāṇā́mtisṛṇā́mcaturṇā́mcaturṇā́mcatasṛṇā́mṣaṇṇām
Locative dvayausdvayausdvayaustriṣútriṣútisṛ́ṣucatúrṣucatúrṣucatasṛ́ṣuṣaṭsu

The numbers from 11 to 19 are:

aikādaśam, dvādaśam, trayaudaśam, caturdaśam, pañcadaśam, ṣauḍaśam, saptadaśam, aṣṭādaśam, navadaśam.

The tens from 20 to 90 are:

(d)viṃśati, triṃśat, catvāriṃśat, pañcāśat, ṣaṣṭi, saptati, aśīti, navati.

The joint numbers:

21 - aikaviṃśati, 22 - dvāviṃśati, 23 - trayauviṃśati, ..., 26 - ṣaḍviṃśati, ..., but 82 - dvāśīti, 83 - trayāśīti, 88 - aṣṭāśīti.

The hundreds are:

śatam, dvai śatai, trīṇi śatāni / tri śatam, etc.

1000 - sahasra.

Ordinal numbers

The ordinal numbers from one to ten are:

  1. prathamas, -ā
  2. dvitīyas, -ā
  3. tṛtīyas, -ā
  4. caturthas, -ī
  5. pañcamas, -ī
  6. ṣaṣṭhas, -ī
  7. saptamas, -ī
  8. aṣṭamas, -ī
  9. navamas, -ī
  10. daśamas, -ī

Other numbers:

11. - aikādaśas, ... 20. - viṃśatitamas (viṃśas), 30. - triṃśattamas (triṃśas), 40. - catvāriṃśattamas, 50. - pañcāśattamas, 60. - ṣaṣtitamas, 70. - saptatitamas, 80. - aśītitamas, 90. - navatitamas, 100. - śatatamas, 1000. - sahasratamas.

Classification of verbs

Sanskrit has ten classes of verbs divided into two broad groups: athematic and thematic. The thematic verbs are so called because an a, called the theme vowel, is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. Exponents used in verb conjugation include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, guṇa, and vṛddhi grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the guṇa-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the vṛddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.

Grades
Vowel (zero) grade a, -i, īu, ū,
Short diphthong (Guṇa) grade a, aiaiauaral
Long diphthong (Vṛddhi) grade ā, āiāiāuārāl

Tense systems

The verbs tenses (a very inexact application of the word, since more distinctions than simply tense are expressed) are organized into four 'systems' (as well as gerunds and infinitives, and such creatures as intensives/frequentatives, desideratives, causatives, and benedictives derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:

Present system

The present system includes the present tense, the imperfect, and the optative and imperative moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old subjunctive. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.

For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:

  • 1. Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with guṇa strengthening, for example, bháva- from bhū 'be', bhara- from bhṛ (guṇa form bhar-) 'bring'.
  • 6. Suffixation of the thematic vowel a with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example tudá- from tud 'thrust'.
  • 4. Suffixation of ya, for example dī́ vya- from div 'play', paśya- from 'see'.

For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through:

  • 2. No modification at all, for example ad- from ad 'eat'.
  • 3. Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example juhu- from hu 'sacrifice', dadhā- from dhā 'put'.
  • 7. Infixion of or n before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example rundh- or ruṇadh- from rudh 'obstruct', yunaj- from yuj 'join' (yunakti 'he joins').
  • 5. Suffixation of nu (guṇa form náu), for example sunu- from su 'press out', stṛnau- from stṛ 'strew' (stṛnumas 'we strew', stṛnvanti 'they strew').
  • 8. Suffixation of u (guṇa form au), for example tanu- from tan 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. tanu- derives from tnnu-, which is zero-grade for *tannu-, because in the Proto-Indo-European language [m] and [n] could be vowels (i.e. [am], [an]), which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; kar- 'make, do' was 5th class in Vedic (krnauti 'he makes'), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (karauti 'he makes')
  • 9. Suffixation of (zero-grade or n), for example krīṇa- or krīṇī- from krī 'buy', pūna- from 'clean'.
  • 10. This class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ya with guṇa or vṛddhi strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example bhāvaya- (< bāu-a-ya-) from bhū 'be', pūjaya- from pūj 'honour', cauraya- from cur (guṇa form caur-) 'steal', dāvaya- from du (vṛddhi form dāv-) 'burn'.

The present system also differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:

  • The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive guṇa in the strong forms.
  • The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to in the strong form.
  • The nu-class (5) has nu in the weak form and náu in the strong form.
  • The nā-class (9) has in the weak form and nā́ in the strong form. disappears before vocalic endings.
Perfect system

The perfect is used mainly in the indicative. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.

The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.

The perfect in the Sanskrit can be in form of the simple perfect and the periphrastic perfect.

The Simple Perfect can form an augmented Pluperfect, and beyond the indicative mood it can also form Perfect Subjunctives, Optatives, and Imperatives. All of these are lost in Classical Sanskrit, when it forms only indicatives.

The simple perfect is the most common form and can be made from most of the roots. The simple perfect stem is made by reduplication and if necessary by stem lengthening. The conjugated form takes special perfect endings. The periphrastic perfect is used with causative, desiderative, denominative and roots with prosodic long anlauted vowel (except a/ā). Only few roots can form both the simple and the periphrastic perfect. These are bhṛ 'carry', uṣ 'burn', vid 'know', bhi 'to be afraid', hu 'sacrifice'.

Aorist system

The aorist system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. abhūs 'you were') and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with in prohibitions, e.g. mā bhūs 'don't be'). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – a- prefixed to the stem.

The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. bhū-: a-bhū-t 'he was'). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as vowel reduction of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of s to the stem. The sibilant aorist by itself has four formations:

  • athematic s-aorist
  • athematic iṣ-aorist
  • athematic siṣ-aorist
  • thematic s-aorist
Future system

The future system is formed with the suffixation of -sya- or -iṣya- and guṇa, both in the simple future and conditional. There exists also so called periphrastic future, which is made by adding suffix tṝ to the stem and the short as 'to be' form.

Conjugation

Each verb has a grammatical voice, whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an indicative, an optative and an imperative mood. Older forms of the language had a subjunctive, though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.

Basic conjugational endings

Conjugational endings in Vedic convey person, number, and voice. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.

Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
Primary 1. -mi-vás-más-ái-váhai-máhai
2. -si-thás-thá-sái-ā́thai, -áithai-dhvái
3. -ti-tás-ánti, -áti-tái-ā́tai, -áitai-ántai, -átai
Secondary 1. -am-vá-má-í, -á, - ái-váhi-máhi
2. -s-tám-tá, -tána-thā́s-ā́thām, -áithām-dhvám
3. -t-tā́m-án, -ús-tá-ā́tām, -áitām-ánta, -áta, -rán
Perfect 1. -a-vá-má-ái-váhai-máhai
2. -tha-áthus-sái-ā́thai, -áithai-dhvái
3. -a-átus-ús-ái-ā́tai, -áitai-rái
Imperative 1. -āni-va-ma-āi-vahāi-mahāi
2. -dhí, -hí, -ø-tám-tá-svá-ā́thām, -áithām-dhvám
3. -tu-tā́m-ántu, -átu-tā́m-ā́tām, - áitām-ántām, -átām
Subjunctive 1. -ā, -āni-vá-má-āi-váhāi-máhāi, -máhai
2. -si, -s-thás-thá-sāi, -sái-ā́ithai-dhvā́i
3. -ti, -t-tás-(á)n-tāi, -tái-ā́itai-ántai, -ánta

Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect, imperative and subjunctive endings are used with the perfect, imperative and subjunctive respectively.

In present and imperfect indicative singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.

In imperative accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger guṇa strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.

The Passive voice forms for all tenses and moods are made by adding -ya- to the zero-grade stem and then adding the middle voice ending of appropriate tense and mood.

The Causative is made by adding the suffix aya to the vṛddhi form. For example, karauti 'he does/makes', and kārayati 'he lets do/make'.

The Desiderative is made by reduplication of the root and the suffix sa. For example, karauti 'he does, makes', and cikīrṣati 'he wishes to do/make'. It can be also combined with causative, e.g. kārayati 'he lets do' and cikārayiṣati 'he wishes to let to do'.

The Intensive (or sometimes called Frequentative) describes a repeated or particularly intensive activity. With verbs of the movement it means "back and forth". The intensive is formed by reduplication of the root and the suffix ya with middle endings for thematic stems, and without suffix and active endings for athematic stems. For example, bhramati 'it curves around', and baṃbhramyatai 'it curves cross and crosswise around'.

Examples of conjugation
bhū - 'to be'

The present indicative takes primary endings.

Present, Indicative
Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. bhavāmibhavāvas(i)bhavāmas(i)bhav(ām)aibhavāvahaibhavāmahai
2. bhavasibhavathasbhavathabhavasaibhavaithaibhavadhvai
3. bhavatibhavatasbhavantibhavataibhavaitaibhavantai

The imperfect takes secondary endings and adds augment a- before stem.

Imperfect, Indicative
Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. ábhavamábhavāvaábhavāmaábhav(ām)aiábhavāvahiábhavāmahi
2. ábhavasábhavatamábhavataábhavathāsábhavaithāmábhavadhvam
3. ábhavatábhavatāmábhavanábhavataábhavaitāmábhavanta

The aorist takes secondary endings.

Aorist stems
Simple aoristBenedictive / PrecativeInjunctive / Prohibitive
abhū-bhūyā-(mā) bhū-

The perfect takes perfect endings.

Perfect
Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. babhūvababhūvivababhūvimababhūvaibabhūvivahaibabhūvimahai
2. babhū(vi)thababhūthusbabhūvababhūsaibabhūvaithaibabhūvadhvai
3. babhūvababhūtusbabhūvusbabhūvaibabhūvaitaibabhūrai

The optative takes secondary endings. -ya- is added to the stem both in the active and the middle. In some forms the cluster ya is dropped out.

Optative
Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. bhavaiyāmbhavai(yā)vabhavai(yā)mabhavaiya(m)bhavai(yā)vahibhavai(yā)mahi
2. bhavai(ya)sbhavai(ya)tambhavai(ya)tabhavai(ya)thāsbhavaiyāthāmbhavai(ya)dhvam
3. bhavai(yā)tbhavai(ya)tāmbhavaiyusbhavai(ya)tabhavaiyātāmbhavairan

The imperative takes imperative endings.

Imperative
Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. bhavāni, bhavabhavāvabhavāmabhav(ām)āibhavāvahāibhavāmahāi
2. bhava(hi), bhavatātbhavatambhavatabhavasva(m)bhavaithāmbhavadhvam
3. bhavatubhavatāmbhavantubhavatāmbhavaitāmbhavantām

The subjunctive takes subjunctive endings.

Subjunctive
Person Active Middle
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. bhavā(ni)bhavāvabhavāmabhav(ām)āibhavāvahāibhavāmahāi
2. bhavas(i)bhavāthasbhavāthabhavāsāibhavāithaibhavadhvāi
3. bhavat(i)bhavātasbhavānbhavātāibhavāitaibhavanta(i)

The future takes primary endings. -iṣya- is added to the stem, both in the active and the middle/passive.

Future, Indicative
Person Active Middle/Passive
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. bhaviṣyāmibhaviṣyāvabhaviṣyāmabhaviṣy(ām)aibhaviṣyāvahaibhaviṣyāmahai
2. bhaviṣyasibhaviṣyathasbhaviṣyathabhaviṣyasaibhaviṣyaithaibhaviṣyadhvai
3. bhaviṣyatibhaviṣyatasbhaviṣyantibhaviṣyataibhaviṣyaitaibhaviṣyantai

The second or periphrastic future is made by adding suffix tṝ to the stem and the short as 'to be' form, except 3rd person, both singular and plural, having feminine -stem nominative endings, e.g., bhavi- + + asmi = bhavitāsmi, but bhavi- + tā/tārāu/tāras = bhavitā/bhavitārāu/bhavitāras. The passive forms are identical to the middle forms.

Periphrastic future
Person Active Middle/Passive
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. bhavitāsmibhavitāsvasbhavitāsmasbhavitāsmaibhavitāsvahaibhavitāsmahai
2. bhavitāsibhavitāsthasbhavitāsthabhavitāsaibhavitāsāthaibhavitā(sa)dhvai
3. bhavitābhavitārāubhavitārasbhavitābhavitārāubhavitāras

The conditional takes secondary endings. -iṣya- is added to the stem, both in the active and the middle/passive.

Conditional
Person Active Middle/Passive
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. ábhaviṣyamábhaviṣyāvaábhaviṣyāmaábhaviṣy(ām)aiábhaviṣyāvahiábhaviṣyāmahi
2. ábhaviṣyasábhaviṣyatamábhaviṣyataábhaviṣyathāsábhaviṣyaithāmábhaviṣyadhvam
3. ábhaviṣyatábhaviṣyatāmábhaviṣyanábhaviṣyataábhaviṣyaitāmábhaviṣyanta

The following stems can take all endings.

Other stems
PassiveCausativeDesiderativeIntensive
bhūya-bhāvaya-bubhūṣa-baubhavī-
Participles
Present participlePast participleFuture participleGerundPerfect participle
ActiveMiddlePassiveActivePassiveActivePassivePassiveActiveMiddle
bhava(n)tas, -ībhavāmānas, -ābhūyamānas, -ābhūtava(n)tas, -ībhūtas, -ābhaviṣya(n)tas, -ībhavitavyas, -ābhāvyas, -ābabhūvas, babhūṣībabhūvānas, -ā
Undeclinable forms
InfinitiveAbsolutive
bhūtum, bhavitumbhūtvā, -bhūya
as - 'to be'

The as 'to be' has the long and the short form. The long form is very rarely used.

Present, Indicative
Person ActiveMiddle
Long formShort formLong formShort form
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. asāmiasāvasasāmasasmisvassmasas(ām)aiasāvahaiasāmahaihaisvahaismahai
2. asasiasathasasathaasisthassthaasasaiasāthaiasadhvaisaisāthaidhvai
3. asatiasatasasantiastistassantiasataiasātaiasantaistaisātaisantai
Imperfect, Indicative
Person ActiveMiddle
Long formShort formLong formShort form
SingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPluralSingularDualPlural
1. āsamasāvaāsāmaāsamasvaāsmaāsāmaiāsāvahiāsāmahiāsmaiāsvahiāsmahi
2. āsīsāsatamāsataāsīsāstamāstaāsathāsāsaihāmāsadhvamāsthāsāsaithāmāsadhvam
3. āsītāsatāmāsanāsītāstāmāsanāsataāsaitāmāsantaāstaāsaitāmāsanta

Syntax

Because of Vedic's complex declension system the word order is free (with tendency toward SOV).

See also

References

  1. MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (1916). A Vedic Grammar for Students. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 48.
  • Ernst Wilhelm Oskar Windisch, Berthold Delbrück, Die altindische Wortfolge aus dem Catagathabrahmana
  • Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Vedic Grammar (1910)
  • Arthur Anthony MacDonell, A Vedic Grammar for Students. Bombay, Oxford University Press. (1916/1975)
  • Bruno Lindner, 'Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den S̆amhitas dargestellt (1878)
  • Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
  • Müller M., Sanskrit Grammatik, Leipzig (1868)
  • Renou L., Grammaire de la langue védique, Paris (1952)
  • William Dwight Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]

Grammars

Morphology

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