Warfare in Medieval Poland

Władysław I the Elbow-high in the composite armour of the 14th century

In the military history of Poland in the Middle Ages one has to separate three different periods: early, transitional, and late, each demarcated by the reign of particular princes and kings. The early medieval period was enclosed between times of Mieszko I and Bolesław III Wrymouth, the transitional period spanned the times of the Fragmentation of the State to the rule of Władysław I the Elbow-high, and the late period from Casimir III the Great through dynasties of Angevins and Jagiellons up to 1514.[1]

There are some difficulties with establishing the time-frame of the epoch, and the territory of the state, especially in the earliest period, and in the time of Fragmentation of Poland as well.^[a] There are no doubts as to the beginning of the medieval period of Polish history – it was at the start of the reign of Mieszko I, and the first historically annotated battles with Wichmann the Younger (967) the Veleti, and the battle of Cedynia in 972. However it is much more difficult to establish the end of the era as there is no definite turning point in the history of Poland, parallel to events such as the Fall of Constantinople (1453), the discovery of America by Cristopher Columbus (1492), or the beginning of the Reformation (1517) in Western and Southern Europe. Most historians agree,[2] that the end of the medieval age and the beginning of the Renaissance in Poland took place during the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty, probably in its waning period (times of Sigismund I the Old). It is much more difficult to establish a single unique battle of that period that can be considered a "final one."[3]

In the history of warfare in Western Europe the end of the medieval period is strictly connected to the end of chivalry, its ethos, and its method of fighting.[4] In Poland, as well as in some other countries of Eastern Europe, knights (noblemen, the Polish szlachta) were called for war (pospolite ruszenie) until the end of the 18th century, or until the end of the (Saxon times).[5] In such circumstances the criteria for the end of the chivalry ethos - as the end of medieval times in Poland - has to be rejected.[6] Rather, the appropriate moment is more likely the time when heavy cavalry, with its full plate armour, was replaced with lighter formations like the husaria. The painting, in the collection of National Museum in Warsaw, known as The Battle of Orsza depicts the common fighting formations of heavy, armoured cavalry, and light hussars. The Battle of Orsha took place in the Fall of 1514. During the battle of Obertyn (1531) there was only light cavalry present on the Polish side. It is possible (but speculative) that these two dates are the border points; the last medieval battle (Orsha) and first battle of modern times (Obertyn).[7]

Polish medieval battles, fought mainly (though not only) in the territory of Poland, were distinguished by:

• tactics (from the end of the 14th century) different from those of the Western Europe - with the use of natural obstacles and the manoeuvre;
• spontaneity, impetuosity, and discontinuation of the chivalric fighting code (knight against knight, henchman against henchman) for, instead, the total war, which the Polish knight adopted during frequent border conflicts in the East, and wars with the Teutonic Knights, originally invited by the duchy of Masovia but soon taken steps against their Polish hosts, who although had only about 1200 brethren in Livonia and Prussia in the early 15th century, were able to hire an army of mercenaries form western Europe strong enough to endanger the much bigger Duchy of Lithuania and the stronger Kingdom of Poland.[8]

Battles of the Middle Ages in Poland - not counting such battles as Battle of Legnica, Battle of Grunwald, Battle of Varna or the last Battle of Orsha - were not large fights, and most of them can be called skirmishes rather than battles. However, the Crimean Tatars and the Turks simultaneously attacked Polish-Lithuanian frontier, at one time reaching Lublin.[9] To fight successfully this new enemy, light (or semi-light, like husaria) cavalry became the most important element of the Polish army.[10]

Armors of 15th century

The basic weapon of the European knight was the sword and the spear (heavy, thrusting weapon). Besides these, a typical arsenal included a number of small armaments from daggers to battle axes, maces, horseman's picks, and many others. The Polish sword was no different than swords used in the West – it was straight, with a blade 80–120 cm long, 1,0 - 1,8 kg of weight, having an almond-shaped pommel and a bar crossguard.[11] The spear, in Poland of the time referred to as "wood" (pol. drzewo), was 3,5 - 4,5 m long, had a spearhead of lancet-like or leaf-like shape, but there were also heavier, armour-piercing rhomboid spearheads.[12]

Defensive armament - armour – at first included the gambeson, then developed into the brigandine and scale armour, followed by hauberk, and then mail with some plate elements, such as breastplates and brassards, and finally panoply, which by the end of 16th century gained its perfect form, protecting the whole of a knight's body, and sometimes his horse. There were some differences between the rich knights of Małopolska, Wielkopolska or Śląsk and those of Mazowsze, who, because they faced enemies from the East, like Old Prussians, Lithuanians, and Tatars, partially adopted their fighting manners, and lighter armament as well. Even their horses were smaller and lighter.[13]

Different armament was used by infantry, which marched onto the battlefield in close order formations of shield-bearers covering heavy cavalry detachments, or mobile units of bowmen and cross-bowmen, and sometimes irregulars, who used different weapons specialized to fight both foot soldiers and cavalry: (war hammer, war scythe, glaive, fork, flail, morgenstern, guisarme, halberd, bardiche). Defensive armaments of the infantry consisted of shields (wooden, round or oval, through light bucklers, up to heavy pavises), quilted jackets and gambesons or brigandines. A characteristic helmet of the foot soldier was the kettle hat - an iron hat with board brim. Earlier infantry units wore conical helmets, later sallets, but more often thick felt caps. Camp followers were used mainly for field work and sometimes to defend fortified camps or trains. Their armament was simple and coincidental.[14]

There were many different types of throwing weapons. The sling went out of use, and the composite bow did not appear until the arrival of the Mongols in the 13th century. Before their invasion, the Poles used straight, long, yew bows. The crossbow reached Poland relatively early,[15] undoubtedly during wars of Bolesław III Krzywousty in the 12th century. Javelins and throwing axes were also in use. During sieges both defenders and attackers commonly used a variety of heavy hurling machines like catapults, onagers, trebuchets etc., and from the end of the 14th century bombards, arquebuses, and finally cannons.[15]

With increasing tension and fighting along the eastern border, Poles adopted many eastern-style war customs and weapons. This is why the sword was so easily and so commonly replaced in the 16th century with the szabla. Previously, the szabla evoked aversion on the part of the noblemen; it was even forbidden to present it during formal reviews. This change would not probably have happened so widely and so quickly without the Polish–Lithuanian union. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, especially in Rus', the eastern style was adopted much earlier.[16]

The most visible armour transformation in medieval times was that of the helmet, which changed its shape from a conical shape into a great helm (11th-12th century) and later to the bascinet with different shapes in following centuries.[17]

The knight was usually accompanied by one, two or more squires, the most experienced of whom (mainly from the impoverished szlachta) had to protect their master during the battle, and to hand him the most convenient weapons. Other servants had to deliver fresh horses, spears, shields, and take care of wounded men. All were armed with swords or falchions and often bows or cross bows. They all formed the smallest element in the army's structure − the kopia, or Lances fournies.[18]

Wealthy knights of Wielkopolska and Śląsk did not differ much – in the sense of weapons and armour – from the western knighthood. Novelties were accepted quickly, and the only constraining factor was the wealth of the knight. Travelers from the West (as for example Widukind of Corvey,[19] or bishop Thietmar of Merseburg[20]), wrote with respect of the pancerni of Mieszko I, and Bolesław I Chrobry. Much later, at tournaments of European Western kingdoms, the Polish knight Zawisza Czarny z Garbowa ("Zawisza the Black") gained eternal fame and became known for his bravery, chivalry, and his black armour. However, until the battle of Grunwald, 15 July 1410, most of Polish knights were less armoured than their competitors from the West, due to the fact that many of the members of szlachta were relatively poor. In the 15th century however, knights became much wealthier as export of grains and forest goods grew rapidly during this period which became a source of wealth for the szlachta.[21]

An important element of medieval army equipment was the horse. Horses were bred in Poland from prehistoric times. Imported from abroad or taken during the war high blood stallions and mares were incorporated into szlachta's herds for the quality improvement of Polish horse breeds. The size of these herds is unknown, but likely large.^[b][22]

Fortified grodys (a fortified Slavic town or castle) were built in Poland along the borders, near the crossings of main trade routes, in naturally defensive locations (hills, river curves), as centers of administration, and defensive strongholds in case of enemy invasion. In the very beginning they were simple earthworks and later evolved into wooden-earth constructions of two types: grate and case,[23]) and finally built of brick or stone. Many of these brick-and-stone built castles can still be found in Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska, Mazowsze and in the Świętokrzyskie region.[24]

Grody, castles, and fortified towns were built in Poland from prehistoric times,[25] but the true blossoming of modern castle construction can be observed from the archeological record in the 13th and 14th centuries after the Mongolian invasion. During this time many cities (like Kraków) and towns had to be rebuilt from ashes, and as a result acquired solid, brick walls.[26] This was particularly noticeable during the rule of Kazimierz Wielki, when internal peace and growing wealth of the state allowed the construction of new castles.[27] In the same time period, (especially along the Northern border and in Śląsk) szlachta's strongholds, sometimes in the form of dungeons (pol. stołp) appeared. However, until the 17th century, when such fortresses as Zamość or Kudak were constructed, there were no unconquerable stronghold in Poland.[28]

• Military of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

a ^{^} Due to fluctuations of the borders and almost instant gains and losses of – sometimes large – territories

b ^{^} There were 18 000 Polish cavalrymen, each of them with at least two horses

c ^{^} Such surprising maneuver in the Battle of Grunwald was keeping part of Polish troops in the woods

d ^{^} Ex. according to Jan Długosz (The Annals..., ISBN 1-901019-00-4) bombards were used in the beginning of the Battle of Grunwald, but without any significant effect

• Charles Boutell: Arms and Armour in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Combined Books, 1996, ISBN 0-938289-61-6.
• Tadeusz Nowak, Jan Wimmer: Historia oręża polskiego 963-1795, Warsaw 1981, ISBN 83-214-0133-3.
• David Edge, John M Paddock: Arms and Armours of the Medieval Knight, Greenwich 1988, ISBN 0-517-10319-2.
• R.Ernest Dupuy, Trevor N. Dupuy: The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, HarperCollins Publishers 1993, ISBN 0-06-270056-1.
• Gerard Labuda: Pierwsze państwo polskie, Czytelnik, Kraków 1989, ISBN 83-03-02969-X.
• The Medieval Military Revolution, ed. Andrew Ayton, J.L. Price, Barnes & Noble Books 1998, ISBN 0-7607-0766-9.
• Iwo C. Pogonowski: Poland, An Illustrated History, Hippocrene Books, New York 2008, ISBN 0-7818-1200-3.
• Zygmunt Ryniewicz: Bitwy świata: Leksykon, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa 1995, ISBN 83-214-1046-4.
• Henryk Samsonowicz: Historia Polski do roku 1795, Warsaw 1976.
• Witold Sarnecki, David Nicolle: Medieval Polish Armies 966-1500, Osprey Publishing 2009, ISBN 978-1-84603-014-7.
• Daniel Stone: The Polish-Lithuanian State 1386-1795, University of Washington Press, Seattle-London, ISBN 0-295-98093-1.