Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
- Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behavior)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes what a computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programing)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
- Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
- Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
- Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
- Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language	Number of Paradigms	Concurrent	Constraints	Dataflow	Declarative	Distributed	Functional	Metaprogramming	Generic	Imperative	Logic	Reflection	Objectoriented	Pipelines	Visual	Rule-based	Other paradigms
Ada[2][3][4][5][6]	5	Yes[a 1]	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
ALF	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
AmigaE	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
APL	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
C++	7 (15)	Yes[7][8][9]	Library[10]	Library[11][12]	Library[13][14]	Library[15][16]	Yes	Yes[17]	Yes[a 3]	Yes	Library[18][19]	Library[20]	Yes[a 2]	Yes[21]	No	Library[22]	Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C#	6 (7)	Yes	No	Library[a 4]	No	No	Yes[a 5]	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	reactive[a 6]
ChucK	3	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Claire	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Clojure	5	Yes[23][24]	No	No	Yes	No	Yes[25]	Yes[26]	No	No	Library[27]	No	No	Yes[28]	Editor[29]	No	Multiple dispatch,[30] Agents[31]
Common Lisp	7 (14)	Library[32]	Library[33]	Library[34]	Yes[35]	Library[36]	Yes	Yes	Yes[37]	Yes	Library[38]	Yes	Yes (multiple dispatch, method combinations)[39][a 2]	Library[40]	No	Library[41]	Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,[42] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl	5	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes[a 3]	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Curry	4	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
D (version 2.0)[43][44]	6	Yes[a 7]	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes[45][a 3]	Yes[a 3]	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Dylan	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
E	3	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
ECMAScript[46][47] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript)	4 (5)	partial (promises, native extensions)[a 8]	No	No	Library[48][49]	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 9]	Library[50][51]	Editor[52]	No	reactive,[a 10][53] event driven[a 11][a 12]
Embarcadero Delphi	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 3]	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Erlang	3	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No
Elixir	4	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No
Elm	6	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	reactive
F#	7 (8)	Yes[a 7]	No	Library[a 4]	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	reactive[a 6]
Fortran	4 (5)	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 13]	No	Yes[a 14]	No	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
Go	4	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No
Haskell	8 (15)	Yes	Library[54]	Library[55]	Yes	Library[56]	Yes (lazy)	Yes[57]	Yes	Yes	Library[58]	No	Immutable	Yes	Yes	Library[59]	literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io	4	Yes[a 7]	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 9]	No	No	No	No
J	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Java	6	Yes	Library[60]	Library[61]	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Julia	9 (17)	Yes	Library[62]	Library[63][64]	Library[65]	Yes	Yes (eager)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Library[66]	Yes	Yes (multiple dispatch, not traditional single)	Yes	No	Library[67][68]	Multiple dispatch, Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy[69] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin	8	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No
LabVIEW	4	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Lava	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	Yes	No	No
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA)	9	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	Yes	No
Lua	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 9]	No	No	No	No
MATLAB	6 (10)	Toolbox[70]	Toolbox[71]	Yes[72]	No	Toolbox[73]	No	Yes[74]	Yes[75]	No	No	Yes[76]	Yes[77]	No	Yes[78]	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle	7	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Object Pascal	4	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
OCaml	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Oz	11	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes[a 2]	Yes	No	Yes	No
Perl	8 (9)	Yes[79]	Library[80]	Yes[81]	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes[a 2]	Yes[a 2]	Yes	No	No	No
PHP[82][83][84]	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Poplog	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
Prograph	3	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	Yes	No	No
Python	5 (10)	Library[85][86]	Library[87]	No	No	Library[88]	Partial	Yes[89][90]	Yes[91][92]	Yes	Library[93]	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	Editor[94]	No	structured
R	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes[95]	No	No	Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket	6	Yes[96]	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
Raku	10	Yes[97]	Yes[98]	Yes[99]	No	Library[100]	Yes	Yes[101]	Yes[102]	Yes	No	Yes[103]	Yes[104]	Yes	No	No	Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No
Ruby	5	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)	6	Yes[a 7]	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes[105][106]	Yes[107]	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Scala[108][109]	9	Yes[a 7]	No	Yes[a 15]	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
Simula	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	No
SISAL	3	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Spreadsheets	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No
Swift	7	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes[110]	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes[a 9][111]	No	No	No	No
Visual Basic .NET	6 (7)	Yes	No	Library[a 4]	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	No	No	No	reactive[a 6]
Windows PowerShell	6	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes[a 2]	Yes	No	No	No
Wolfram Language & Mathematica	13[112] (14)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes[113]	No	Yes	Knowledge Based

Notes

rendezvous and monitor-like based
Class-based
Template metaprogramming
using TPL Dataflow
only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
actor programming
using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
Prototype-based
using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
in Node.js via their events module
in browsers via their native EventTarget API
purely functional
parameterized classes
Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

Citations

Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94. IEEEXplore. IEEE. pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3.
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
Thread support
Atomics support
Memory model
Gecode
SystemC
Boost.Iostreams
Boolinq
AraRat
OpenMPI
Boost.MPI
Boost.MPL
LC++
Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
Reflect Library
N3534
Boost.Spirit
Clojure - Concurrent Programming
Clojure - core.async
Clojure - Functional Programming
Clojure - Macros
Clojure - core.logic
Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
"Light Table". 2019-04-08.
Multimethods and Hierarchies
Agents and Asynchronous Actions
many concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions
constraint programming inside CL through extensions
dataflow extension
by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
MPI, etc via language extensions
template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
Prolog implemented as a language extension
Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation:
rule-based programming extension
through the Meta Object Protocol
D Language Feature Table
Phobos std.algorithm
D language String Mixins
The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
Object Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
"React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.
"TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08.
"Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.
"mori". 2019-04-08.
"Light Table". 2019-04-08.
"TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08.
Prolog embedding
"Functional Reactive Programming - HaskellWiki".
Cloud Haskell
"Template Haskell - HaskellWiki".
"Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad".
https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
"JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
"GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". 2019-01-15.
"GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". 2018-12-28.
https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
"GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". 2018-12-03.
"GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". 2017-08-03.
Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
"Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
interpreter based threads
Moose
Higher Order Perl
PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
"Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"DistributedProgramming". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
"Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
"Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
"PEP 443 -- Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
"PEP 484 -- Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
"PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.
"Light Table". 2019-04-08.
"Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\accessdate=13 July 2017.
Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
Channels and other mechanisms
"Class Signature".
Feed operator
https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
"Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.
https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
"Meta-object protocol (MOP)".
https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
"The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
"The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
Scala Language Specification
"Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
"TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[rend-mon-7] rendezvous and monitor-like based

[class-8] Class-based

[temp-meta-20] Template metaprogramming

[tpldf-26] using TPL Dataflow

[lambda-27] y lambda support (lazy functional programming)

[rx-28] using Reactive Extensions (Rx)

[actor-51] tor programming

[nodejs-cluster-55] using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.

[prototype-58] Prototype-based

[rxjs-62] using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)

[node-events-64] Node.js via their events module

[dom-events-65] rowsers via their native EventTarget API

[pure-func-66] urely functional

[param-class-67] rameterized classes

[akka-124] Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

[1] Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94. IEEEXplore. IEEE. pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3.

[2] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization

[3] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems

[4] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units

[5] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms

[6] Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions

[9] Thread support

[10] Atomics support

[11] Memory model

[12] Gecode

[13] SystemC

[14] Boost.Iostreams

[15] Boolinq

[16] AraRat

[17] OpenMPI

[18] Boost.MPI

[19] Boost.MPL

[21] LC++

[22] Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine

[23] Reflect Library

[24] N3534

[25] Boost.Spirit

[29] Clojure - Concurrent Programming

[30] Clojure - core.async

[31] Clojure - Functional Programming

[32] Clojure - Macros

[33] Clojure - core.logic

[34] Clojure - Threading Macros Guide

[35] "Light Table". 2019-04-08.

[36] Multimethods and Hierarchies

[37] Agents and Asynchronous Actions

[38] y concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions

[39] straint programming inside CL through extensions

[40] taflow extension

[41] y creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative

[42] MPI, etc via language extensions

[43] template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)

[44] Prolog implemented as a language extension

[45] Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.

[46] ted by the user via a short macro, example of implementation:

[47] rule-based programming extension

[48] through the Meta Object Protocol

[49] D Language Feature Table

[50] Phobos std.algorithm

[52] D language String Mixins

[53] The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.

[54] Object Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.

[56] "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.

[57] "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08.

[59] "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.

[60] "mori". 2019-04-08.

[61] "Light Table". 2019-04-08.

[63] "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08.

[68] Prolog embedding

[69] "Functional Reactive Programming - HaskellWiki".

[70] Cloud Haskell

[71] "Template Haskell - HaskellWiki".

[72] "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad".

[74] ttps://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API

[75] ttps://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK

[76] "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.

[77] "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". 2019-01-15.

[78] "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". 2018-12-28.

[79] ttps://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia

[80] ttps://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia

[81] "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". 2018-12-03.

[82] "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". 2017-08-03.

[83] Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl

[84] "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[85] "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[86] "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[87] "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[88] "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[89] "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[90] "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[91] "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[92] "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[93] terpreter based threads

[94] Moose

[95] Higher Order Perl

[96] PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions

[97] PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)

[98] PHP Manual, Anonymous functions

[99] "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[100] "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[101] "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[102] "DistributedProgramming". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

[103] "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[104] "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[105] "PEP 443 -- Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[106] "PEP 484 -- Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[107] "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[108] "Light Table". 2019-04-08.

[109] "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\accessdate=13 July 2017.

[110] Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization

[111] Channels and other mechanisms

[112] "Class Signature".

[113] Feed operator

[114] ttps://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module

[115] "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.

[116] ttps://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles

[117] "Meta-object protocol (MOP)".

[118] ttps://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles

[119] "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

[120] "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

[121] The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1

[122] An Overview of the Scala Programming Language

[123] Scala Language Specification

[125] "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[126] "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

[127] Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.

[128] External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

Types of programming languages
Paradigm	Actor-based Array Aspect-oriented Class-based Concatenative Concurrent Dataflow Declarative Domain-specific Dynamic Esoteric Event-driven Extensible Functional Imperative Logic Macro Metaprogramming Object-based Object-oriented Pipeline Procedural Prototype-based Reflective Rule-based Scripting Stack-oriented Synchronous Tactile Template
Level	Assembly Compiled Interpreted Machine Low-level High-level Very high-level
Generation	First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Related	Non-English-based Visual