Diamondback terrapin

Terrapins look much like their freshwater relatives, but are well adapted to the near shore marine environment. They have several adaptations that allow them to survive in varying salinities. They can live in full strength salt water for extended periods,[12] and their skin is largely impermeable to salt. Terrapins have lachrymal salt glands,[13][14] not present in their relatives, which are used primarily when the turtle is dehydrated. They can distinguish between drinking water of different salinities.[15] Terrapins also exhibit unusual and sophisticated behavior to obtain fresh water, including drinking the freshwater surface layer that can accumulate on top of salt water during rainfall and raising their heads into the air with mouths open to catch falling rain drops.[15][16]

Terrapins are strong swimmers. They have strongly webbed hind feet, but not flippers as do sea turtles. Like their relatives (Graptemys), they have strong jaws for crushing shells of prey, such as clams and snails. This is especially true of females, who have larger and more muscular jaws than males.[17]

Seven subspecies are recognized, including the nominate race.

• M. t. centrata (Latreille, 1801) – Carolina diamondback terrapin (Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina)[2]
• M. t. littoralis (Hay, 1904) – Texas diamondback terrapin (Texas)[2]
• M. t. macrospilota (Hay, 1904) – ornate diamondback terrapin (Florida) [2]
• M. t. pileata (Wied, 1865) – Mississippi diamondback terrapin (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas)[2]
• M. t. rhizophorarum Fowler, 1906 – mangrove diamondback terrapin (Florida)[2]
• M. t. tequesta Schwartz, 1955 – East Florida diamondback terrapin (Florida)[2]
• M. t. terrapin (Schoepff, 1793) – northern diamondback terrapin (Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Virginia)[18][19][3][20]

The isolated Bermudan population, which arrived in Bermuda on its own rather than being introduced by humans, has not yet been officially assigned to a subspecies but, based on mtDNA, it is closely related to the population from the Carolinas.[5]

Like all reptiles, terrapin fertilization occurs internally. Courtship has been seen in May and June, and is similar to that of the closely related red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta).[28] Female terrapins can mate with multiple males and store sperm for years,[29] resulting in some clutches of eggs with more than one father.

Like many turtles, terrapins have temperature dependent sex determination, meaning that the sex of hatchlings is the result of incubation temperature. Females can lay up to three clutches of eggs/year in the wild,[30] and up to five clutches/year in captivity.[31] It is not known how often they may skip reproduction, so true clutch frequency is unknown.

Females may wander considerable distances on land before nesting. Nests are usually laid in sand dunes or scrub vegetation near the ocean[32] in June and July, but nesting may start as early as late April in Florida.[33] Females will quickly abandon a nest attempt if they are disturbed while nesting. Clutch sizes vary latitudinally, with average clutch sizes as low as 5.8/eggs/clutch in southern Florida[34] to 10.9 in New York.[30] After covering the nest, terrapins quickly return to the ocean and do not return except to nest again.

The eggs usually hatch in 60–85 days, depending on the temperature and the depth of the nest. Hatchlings usually emerge from the nest in August and September, but may overwinter in the nest after hatching.[35] Hatchlings sometimes stay on land in the nesting areas in both fall and spring and they may remain terrestrial for much or all of the winter in some places.[33][36] Hatchling terrapins are freeze tolerant,[35] which may facilitate overwintering on land. Hatchlings have lower salt tolerance than adults and Gibbons et al.[24] provided strong evidence that one- and two-year-old terrapins use different habitats than do old individuals.

Growth rates, age of maturity, and maximum age are not well known for terrapins in the wild, but males reach sexual maturity before females because of their smaller adult size. In females at least, sexual maturity is dependent on size rather than age.[37] Estimations of age based on counts of growth rings on the shell are as yet untested, so it is not clear how to determine the ages of wild terrapins.

Because nesting is the only terrapin activity that occurs on land, most other aspects of terrapin behavior are poorly known. Limited data suggest that terrapins hibernate in the colder months in most of their range, in the mud of creeks and marshes.[38]

In the 1900s, the species was once considered a delicacy to eat and was hunted almost to extinction. The population also decreased due to the development of coastal areas, terrapins being susceptible to wounds from the propellers on motorboats. Another common cause of death is the trapping of the turtles in recreational crab traps, as the turtles are attracted to the same bait as the crabs. Due to these factors, the diamondback terrapin is listed as an endangered species in Rhode Island, a threatened species in Massachusetts and is considered a "species of concern" in Georgia, Delaware, Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, and Virginia. The diamondback terrapin is listed as a "high priority species" under the South Carolina Wildlife Action Plan. In New Jersey, it was recommended to be listed as a Species of Special Concern in 2001. In July 2016, the species was removed from the New Jersey game list and is now listed as non-game with no hunting season. In Connecticut, there is no open hunting season for this animal. However, it holds no federal conservation status.^{[citation needed]}

The species is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN due to decreasing population numbers in much of its range. There is limited protection for terrapins on a state-by-state level throughout its range; it is listed as Endangered in Rhode Island and Threatened in Massachusetts. The Diamondback Terrapin Working Group [48] deal with regional protection issues. There is no national protection except through the Lacey Act, and little international protection.

Diamondback terrapins are the only U.S. turtles that inhabit the brackish waters of estuaries, tidal creeks and salt marshes. With a historic range stretching from Massachusetts to Texas, terrapin populations have been severely depleted by land development and other human impacts along the Atlantic coast.

Earthwatch Institute, a global non-profit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, supports a research program called "Tagging the Terrapins of the Jersey Shore." This program allows volunteers to explore the coastal sprawl of New Jersey's Ocean County on Barnegat Bay, one of the most extensive salt marsh ecosystems on the East Coast, in search of this ornate turtle. On this project, volunteers contribute to environmental sustainability in the face of rampant development. Veteran turtle scientists Dr. Hal Avery, Dr. Jim Spotila, Dr. Walter Bien and Dr. Ed Standora are overseeing this program and the viability of terrapin populations in the face of growing environmental change.[49]

The major threats to diamondback terrapins are all associated with humans and probably differ in different parts of their range. People tend to build their cities on ocean coasts near the mouths of large rivers and in doing so they have destroyed many of the huge marshes that terrapins inhabited.[50] Nationwide, probably >75% of the salt marshes where terrapins lived have been destroyed or altered. Currently, ocean level rise threatens the remainder.

Traps used to catch crabs, both commercially and privately, have commonly caught and drowned many diamondback terrapins,[24] which can result in male-biased populations, local population declines, and even extinctions.[25][51] When these traps are lost or abandoned (“ghost traps”), they can kill terrapins for many years. Terrapin-excluding devices are available to retrofit crab traps; these reduce the number of terrapins captured while having little or no impact on crab capture rates.[52][53] In some states (NJ, DE, MD), these devices are required by law.

Nests, hatchlings, and sometimes adults[54]are commonly eaten by raccoons, foxes, rats[30][55][56]and many species of birds, especially crows and gulls.[33][57] Density of these predators are often increased because of their association with humans. Predation rates can be extremely high; predation by raccoons on terrapin nests at Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge in New York varied from 92-100% each year from 1998–2008,[30] Burke unpubl. data).

Terrapins are killed by cars when nesting females cross roads[58] and mortality can be high enough to seriously affect populations.[59] Terrapins are still harvested for food in some states. Terrapins may be affected by pollutants such as metals and organic compounds,[60] but this has not been demonstrated in wild populations.

There is an active casual and professional pet trade in terrapins and it is unknown how many are removed from the wild for this purpose. Some people breed the species in captivity[61] and some color variants are considered especially desirable. In Europe, Malaclemys are widely kept as pets, as are many closely related species.

Part of the pleasure of eating terrapin when the fashion was at its height, however, was its outré, bizarre, even monstrous essential nature...Killing, cleaning, and preparing terrapin is not easy...

— Paul Freedman[69]

Diamondback terrapins were heavily harvested for food in colonial America and probably before that by Native Americans. Terrapins were so abundant and easily obtained that slaves and even the Continental Army ate large numbers of them.

In the 19th century, a dish called "Terrapin à la Maryland", a stew with cream and sherry, was a canonical element, along with canvasback duck, of the elegant and regional "Maryland Feast" menu, an "elite standard...that lasted for decades".[69]

By 1917, terrapins sold for as much as $5 each (equivalent to $95.66 in 2017).[55] Huge numbers of terrapins were harvested from marshes and marketed in cities. By the early 1900s, populations in the northern part of the range were severely depleted and the southern part was greatly reduced as well.[70] As early as 1902 the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (which later became the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) recognized that terrapin populations were declining and started building large research facilities, centered at the Beaufort, North Carolina Fisheries Laboratory, to investigate methods for captive breeding terrapins for food.[71] People tried (unsuccessfully) to establish them in many other locations, including San Francisco.[72]

Maryland named the diamondback terrapin its official state reptile in 1994. The University of Maryland, College Park has used the species as its nickname (the Maryland Terrapins) and mascot (Testudo) since 1933, and the school newspaper has been named The Diamondback since 1921. The athletic teams are often referred to as "Terps" for short.[73] The Baltimore baseball club entry in the Federal League during 1914 and 1915 was called the Baltimore Terrapins. The terrapin has also been a symbol of the Grateful Dead because of their song "Terrapin Station". Many images of the terrapin dancing with a tambourine appear on posters, T-shirts and other places in Grateful Dead memorabilia. Inspired by the former song, the Terrapin Beer Company uses a terrapin as its namesake and logo on its packaging.[74]