Kwa languages

The Kwa languages, often specified as New Kwa, are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Ivory Coast, across southern Ghana, and in central Togo. The name was introduced 1895 by Gottlob Krause and derives from the word for 'people' (Kwa) in many of these languages, as illustrated by Akan names.

Not to be confused with Kwa of Cameroon or Kwa of Nigeria.
Kwa
New Kwa
Geographic
distribution		Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Togo
Linguistic classificationNiger–Congo
Subdivisions
Glottologkwav1236
Map showing the distribution of Niger–Congo languages. Green is the Kwa subfamily.

Languages

See the box at right for a current classification.

The various clusters of languages included in Kwa are at best distantly related, and it has not been demonstrated that they are closer to each other than to neighboring Niger–Congo languages.[1]

Stewart[2] distinguished the following major branches, which historical-comparative analysis supports as valid groups:

The Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast are not particularly close to any of these, nor to each other, so they are left ungrouped:

An Esuma language, extinct ca. 1800, remains unclassified.

Since Stewart, Ega has been tentatively removed, the Gbe languages reassigned to Volta–Niger, and Apro added. Some of the Na-Togo and Ka-Togo languages have been placed into separate branches of Kwa.[3] See the infobox at right for the resulting branches.

Ethnologue divides the Kwa languages into two broad geographical groupings: Nyo and Left bank, but this is not a genealogical classification. The Nyo group collapses Stewart's Potou–Tano and Ga–Dangme branches and also includes the ungrouped languages of southern Ivory Coast, while the Ka/Na-Togo and Gbe languages are called Left bank because they are spoken to the east of the Volta River.

History of the proposal

The word 'Kwa' was introduced by Gottlob Krause in 1885 for the Akan (or perhaps Tano), Gã, and Gbe languages, which have kwa or kua as their word for 'human being'. Since then the proposal has been dramatically expanded, only to revert to something approaching its initial conception.

In 1952 Westermann and Bryan expanded Kwa to the various Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast and to what are now called the Volta–Niger languages of southern Nigeria. Greenberg (1963) added the Kru languages of Liberia, the Ghana–Togo Mountain languages which Westermann and Bryan had specifically excluded, and Ijaw of the Niger delta; West Kwa included the languages from Liberia to Dahomey (Republic of Benin), and East Kwa the languages of Nigeria. Bennett & Sterk (1977) proposed that the Yoruboid and Igboid languages belonged in Benue–Congo rather than in Kwa. Stewart (1989) removed Kru, Ijaw, and Volta–Niger (East Kwa), but kept the Ghana–Togo Mountain and Lagoon languages, as well as adding a few obscure, newly described languages. Stewart's classification is the basis of more recent conceptions. To disambiguate this from Greenberg's influential classification, the reduced family is sometimes called "New Kwa".

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of Kwa and related languages from Dumestre (1971) and other sources:[4]

ClassificationLanguageeyeeartoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewater
Ghana-TogoProto-Central Togo[5]*ki-nu-bí /bi-*ku-túe /a-*li-nía /a-; *li-lúma /a-*ki-níé-bí /bi-*ka-niána /ku-; *o- núí /i-*li-kúpá /a-*ku-wyéu /a-*n-tû
Potou-TanoProto-Potou–Tano[6]*-ɲĩ*-tʊ̃*-nʊ̃*-ju
Potou-TanoProto-Akanic[6]*-ɲĩ*-sʊ̃*-nʊ̃*-cu
Potou-TanoAkan[6]ɜ-nĩa-sʊ̃a-nʊ̃n-su
Potou-TanoProto-Guang[7]*kω-sω*kɔ-nɔ̃*ŋ-kalωŋ*o-yi*ɲ-ču
Potou-TanoBaoulé[4]ɲimasuɟetaama, tãflãnwãmoɟaoɥjewaken̥zɥe
Potou-TanoEbrié[4]m̥mɛ-ɓin̥ɟɛn̥nɔallɛm̥mɛn̥kan̥eʔweajan̥du
Potou-TanoKrobou[4]ɲɛ-bisun̥ɲɛdandren̥nɔ̃n̥krãm̥rɔɲamɛn̥zɔ
Potou-TanoAboure[4]ɛɲɛɔwɔn̥ɲɛnãnɛɔblɔn̥nlaeboɛ̃eliben̥tʃwɛ
Potou-TanoEotile[4]ɛjimaɔhoannaannɛãton̥nan̥tɔwuedwɔn̥su
Potou-TanoMbatto[4]õɲɛ̃muoõdʒoɔ̃nɔ̃gõolɛẽmẽõglɔ̃õtʃɥiojokuõdu
LagoonAdioukrou[4]ɲamalɔrunɛnanmnɛɲmeblluwl-ikŋmidʒ
LagoonAbbey[4]aɛ̃mɔ̃rɔkɔejilɛtɛejimbum̥pjesfjetimidʒi
LagoonAttie[4]himbɛtehɛ̃nũmɛvø̃fedzakwɛsø
LagoonAlladian[4]ɛrɛnukun̥ɲiɛwɛ̃ɛmwãn̥krɛn̥wiɛtɛn̥ʃi
LagoonAvikam[4]eŋwaɓaɛzjɛɓaɛɲrãazraɓaenɔ̃ɛvɛ̃ɛwuezibaɛsɔ̃
LagoonAbidji[4]nɔnɔwɛrɛteɛɲiinenimitim̥bwoluvutʰimindi
KruAizi[4]zrolokɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪ̃
EgaEga[8]efí /eelowá /a-ɛnʊmà /a-eno /i-ɔ̀mààsɔ̀ìkùote /a-aɗú
PerePere[9]jísì-kéénɛ́ɛ́(ⁿ)ɲòŋòmùjèŋgéyúgúɲààmúkóógbèè-tííⁿtúmú
MpraMpra[10]anisiatenchumanchumueyiankaw; nkwõ
DompoDompo[11]nyisisepenyìdandulokanunklawuuyinsu
GbeProto-Gbe[12]*-tó*aɖú*-ɖɛ́*-ɖũ; *-ɖũkpá*-ʁʷũ*-χʷú*-tĩ́*-tsĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[13]

ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Left Bank, Avatime-NyangboAvatimeólèɔ́βàɔ́tàónéót͡ʃùóɡlòɡlóelèɡɔ́tɔ́βàɡɔ́tólélíɔfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-NyangboNyangbo (1)olíɛbʰaɛtáɛlɛ́itíholoɡeneansɛʒitakɛfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-NyangboNyangbo (2)oliéɛbʰaɛtaéɛlɛetiéholōɡěneéansɛʒitaékɛfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-NyangboTafi (1)olíɛbʰaɛtáẽlɛitíholōɡénéasuɛ̄ʒitákɛfɔ̄
Left Bank, Avatime-NyangboTafi (2)olíɪbʰaɪtáĩlĩ́itíholōɡénéasʊīʒitákífɔ̄
Left Bank, GbeÉwéèɖéèvèètɔ̃ènèàtɔ̃àdẽ́adrẽ́èɲíaʃíekéèwó
Left Bank, GbeKotafon-Gbeɖok͡poàwèàtɔ̃̂ènɛ̀àtɔ̃́aɲizɛ̃tsĩ́ã̀wè (litː hand+ 2)tsĩ́ã̀tɔ̃̂ (litː hand+ 3)tsĩ́ɛ̀nɛ̀ (litː hand+ 4)emewó
Left Bank, GbeSaxwe-Gbeɑ̀ɖé / ɖók͡póòwêɑ̀tɔ̃̂ɛ̀nɛ̃̂ɑ̀tṹɑ̀dɛ̃́ɑ̀tʃówê (5 + 2)ɑ̀tɾótɔ̃̂ (5 + 3)ɑ̀tʃɛ̃́nɛ̃̂ (5 + 5)òwō
Left Bank, GbeWaci-Gbe (Gen-Gbe)ɖeka(e)ve(e)tɔn(e)ne(a)tɔ́n(a)dén(á)dlén(e)nyí(e)asiɖeka (10 -1) ?(e)wo
Left Bank, GbeWestern Xwla-Gbelók͡póɔ̀wèɔ̀tɔ̃̀ɛ̀nɛ̀àtɔ̃́àtroók͡pó (5 + 1)àcówèàtsítɔ̃̀àtsíɛ̀ɔ̀síɔsí (litː hand hand)
Left Bank, GbeXwla-Gbeòɖě(lók͡pō)ōwèōtɔ̃̀ēnɛ̀àtɔ̃̄ɔ̃̄ātrók͡pōācíòwèàtĩ́tɔ̃̀àcíɛ̀nɛ̀ōwóé
Left Bank, Gbe, AjaAja-Gbe (Aja)eɖé / ɖekaèvè / amɛ̃veetɔ̃̂ / amɛ̃tɔ̃enɛ̀ / amɛ̃nɛ̃atɔ̃ / amãtɔ̃adɛ̃ / amãdɛ̃adɾɛ / amãdɾɛeɲĩ / amɛ̃ɲĩɲíɖe / aʃiɖekɛ / amãʃíɖekɛ (10 -1)ewó
Left Bank, Gbe, AjaGun-Gbeòɖè / ɖòk͡póàweàtɔnɛnɛ̀nàtɔ́nt͡ʃíɖòk͡pó (?+1)t͡ʃiánwè (?+2)t͡ʃíantɔ̀n (?+3)t͡ʃíɛ́nnɛ̀n (?+4)àwò
Left Bank, Gbe, FonFon-Gbe (Fon)ɖěweatɔnɛnɛatɔ́ɔ́nayizɛ́ntɛ́nwe (5 + 2)tántɔn (5 + 3)tɛ́nnɛ (5 + 5)wǒ
Left Bank, Gbe, FonMaxi-Gbeɖèéòwèɔ̀tɔ̃̀ɛ̀nɛ̀àtɔ̃́ayizɛ̃tɛ́ɛwè (5 + 2)tã́tɔ̃̀ (5 + 3)tɛ̃ɛ̃nɛ̀ (5 + 5)òwó
Left Bank, Gbe, MinaGen-Gbe (Gen)èɖěèvèētɔ̃̀ēnɛ̀àtɔ̃́ɔ̃ādɛ̃́ǎdrɛ̃́ēɲíēɲíɖé (10 -1)ēwó
Left Bank, Kebu-AnimereAkebu (1)ʈɛ́ìjítānìə̀ə̀tʊ̄ʊ̀kʊ̀rã̀ŋpīrìmātānɛ̀ĩ̀ŋfã̀ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋtə̀
Left Bank, Kebu-AnimereAkebu (2)dɛiyitaːniətuwturaŋprimatanɛŋfant͡ʃet͡ʃeŋ (10 - 1) ?tə
Left Bank, Kebu-AnimereAnimerebɛɹidintʰaaɳeatʰuŋakʰuɹuŋɳotʰaɳoɳafʊɳetʰi
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-BowiliIgo (Ahlon)iliìwàìtãàlã̀ùtɔuɡoùzòniùmàlàúkàliɔ̀wú
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-BowiliIkposo-uwiɛ̀dɪɛ̀fʷàɛ̀laɛ̀naɛ̀tʊɛ̀wlʊɛ̀wlʊdɪ (6 + 1) ?ɛ̀lɛɛ̀lɛdɪ (8 + 1) ?ìd͡ʒo
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-BowiliTuwuri (Bowiri)kédìkɛ́ɛ́yákààlɛ̀kɛ́ɛ́nákùùlókévũ̀kɛ́kɔ̀nɔ̀kɛ̀ɛ̀lɛ̃̀kàvèdí (10 - 1) ?kùwà
Nyo, AgnebyAbé (Abbey)ŋ̀k͡pɔ̄āɲʊ̃́āɾíàlɛ́ōnílɔ̀hɔ̃̀lɔ̀hʍ̃ã̄ɾíèpʲèɲāàkóǹnɛ̀
Nyo, AgnebyAbidjiń̩nɔ̀áānʊ̄ɛ̃́ɛ̃̄tɪ̄ã́ã̄lāéēnēnáhʊ̃̀ã̀nɔ̃́ᵐbʊ̀nówònɛ̃́ᵐbrɛ̀ń̩díɔ̀
Nyo, AgnebyAdioukrouɲâmɲóɲɲâhǹjârjênnɔ̂hǹlɔ́bŋ̀níwǹlíbárm̀lɛ̂w
Nyo, AttieAttiéèkkɛ́mwʌ̃́kɛ́hã́kɛ́dʒíkɛ̋bʌ̃́kɛ̋mũ̄n̩sőmɔ̃̀kɥɛ́ŋ̩ɡʷãkɛ̃̋ŋ
Nyo, AttieGaékòmééɲɔ̀étɛ̃éɟwɛ̀énùmɔ̃ék͡pàak͡pàwo (6 + 1) ?k͡pàaɲɔ̃ (6 + 2) ?nɛ̀ɛhṹɲɔ̀ŋmá
Nyo, Ga-DangmeDangmekákēéɲɔ̃̀étɛ̃̄éywɛ̀ / éwìɛ̀énũ̄ɔ̃̄ék͡pàk͡pààɡō (6 + 1) ?k͡pàaɲɔ̃̄ (6 + 2) ?nɛ̃̀ɛ̃́ɲɔ̃̀ŋ͡mã́ (plural formː ɲĩ̀ŋ͡mĩ́)
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-AdeleAdeleɛ̀kíɛ̀nyɔ̀ɔ̀nàsìɛ̀nààtònkòòrònkɔ̀rɔ̀nkí (6 + 1) ?nìyɛ̀yɛ̀kí (10 - 1) ?fò
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-AdeleAniidɨ̄ŋ, ɡādɨ̄ŋ, ɡīdɨ̄ŋ, ɡūdɨ̄ŋīɲīʊ̄, bʊ̄ɲīʊ̄, bāɲīʊ̄,īrīū, īrīū, īrīūīnāŋ, īnāŋ, īnāŋīnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋīkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋkūlūmīɡánáánátʃīīnītɘ̄b
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-AkpafuLelemiùnwìíɲɔ́ɛ̀tɛ̀ínɛ́ɛ̀lɔ́ɛ̀kúmáátɛ̀ (4 + 3) ?máánɛ́ (4 + 4) ?lɛ́yàlìnwì (10 - 1) ?lèèvù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-AkpafuSiwu (Akpafu)ɔ̀wɛ̃̂íɲɔ̂ìtɛ́ínâírùíkùɔ̀ìkɔ́dzɛ̂ (4 + 3) ?fàráfánà (4 + 4) ?káiwɛ̃̂ (10 - 1) ?ìwéó
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-SantrokofiSekpele (1)nʊ̀ɛ́ (lɛ̀wɛ́)núə̀ǹtsyə́ńnàǹnɔ́ǹkùákùánsèyènínàsélèfòsì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-SantrokofiSekpele (2)nùɛ́núə̀ǹtsyə́ǹnáǹnɔ́ǹkúakúansèyènínàsélèfósì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-SantrokofiSelee (Santrokofi)ònwíìɔ̀ɲɔ́òtìɛ́ɔ́nàɔ̀nɔ́ɔ̀òkúɔ́kùɛ́nsĩ́ɔ̀nɛ́nàásĩ́lèfósì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, LogbaLogba (1)ik͡pɛinyɔitainainúiɡlóɡlaŋk͡pemlamináɡɔkwaɖuuɖú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, LogbaLogba (2)ik͡pɛiɲɔitainainúiɡlóɡlaŋk͡pemlamináɡɔkwaɖuuɖú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, AkanBono Twibaakó̃mienumiensánainnumnsiãnsɔŋɔt͡ʃwieŋkrɔŋdu
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, AkanAkan (Akuapem Twi) (1)baakó~ə̀bìéńə̀bìèsá~ànáńə̀núḿə̀sìá~ə̀sɔ́ńàwòtɕɥé /tw/àkróńdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, AkanAkan (2)baakó̃mmienúmmeɛnsã́(ɛ)náń(e)núḿ(e)nsĩã́(ɛ)nsóńnwɔtwé(ɛ)nkróń(e)dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, NorthernAnufokũɲ̀ɲɔ̀ǹzã̀ǹnáǹnúǹʒɛ̃́ǹzômɔ̀cᵘɛ́ŋ̀ɡɔ̀nábúɾú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, NorthernAnyinɛ̀kʊ̃ (in counting)/ kʊ̃ (after a noun)ɲɲṹãnsɑ̃nnɑ̃́nnṹnsĩ́ã́nsʊ̂mɔcuɛ́ŋɡʊ̃ɑ̃lɑ̃́búlú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, NorthernBaule (Baoulé)kùnǹɲɔ̀nǹsànǹnánǹnúnǹsiɛ́nǹsôǹmɔ̀cuɛ́ǹɡwlànblú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, NorthernSehwikʊ̃̀ɲɔ̀ǹzã̀ǹnáǹnúǹziã́ǹzɔ́ːmɔ̀tʃwɛ́ǹɡɔ̃̀lã̀bʊ́lʊ́
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, SouthernAhantaɔ̀kʊ́nàɥɪ̀nàsànànlàə̀nlùə̀ʃiə̀ə̀súŋwààwɔ̀twɛ̀àhɔ́nlàbùnlù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, SouthernNzemaɛ̀kʊ̃ (in counting)/ kʊ̃ (after a noun)ɲ́ɲʊ̃ (tone reversals after nouns)ńsɑ̃ńnɑ̃ńnṹńsĩ́ãńsṹũmɔ́cʊɛŋɡʊ̃lɑ̃́bulú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, SouthernJwira-Pepesakońwiańsańnańnuńsiãńsuwmɔ́twɛnɡhoaláeburú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangChumburungkɔ́ɪ̀ɲɔ́ɪ̀sáɪ̀náɪ̀núːìsíyéìsúnóːìbùrùwáɪ̀kpánɔ́ːkúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangDwang (Bekye)kɔ́ɔ́aɲóasáanáanúasíéasʊ́nɔat͡ʃwéak͡pɔ́nɔídú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangFoodoǹkɔ́ /ɔkʊlamǹɲʸɔ́ǹsáǹnáàŋǹnṹũ̀ / ǹnúŋǹséèǹsínōdùkwéè / dùkoiǹk͡pánɔ̀dúdu
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangGinyangaokouiɡnoissainainounissisonoɡuikoesonʔouɡuidou
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangGonjaà-kôà-ɲɔ́à-sáà-náà-núà-ʃéà-ʃúnùà-bùrùwáà-k͡pánàkùdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangKplang (Prang)kɔ̃ / ɛkʊ́nkɔ́áɲɔasaanáɛnʊ́eséɛsʊ́nʊ́ɛkwéapʊ́nɔ́ídú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangKrache (Kaakyi)kɔ́ɔ́aɲɔ́asáanáɛnʊ̂ɛsíɛ́asʊ́nɔ́kukwéak͡pʊ́nɔ́kúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangNawurikʊ́ːʔaɲɔ́asáanáanûasíjéasúnɔ̂abᵘɾuwáakpʌ́nɔ̂ɡúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North GuangNkonyaɛ̀-kʊ̃̀ (ɔ̀-kʊ̀ Northern Dialect) / ɪ̀-kʊ̀lɛ̀à-ɲɔ̀à-sàà-nàà-nùà-sìèà-sìènɔ́ɪ̀-kʷèɪ̀-kʷèbáɪ̀-dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South GuangAwutu (Awutu-Efutu)kòméìɲɔ́èsã́ènaː́ ̀ènúìsɛ̃́ː ̀ìsɔ̃́itʃwéɛ̀pánìdù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South GuangChereponàkʊ́ìɲɔ́ìsã́ìnɛ̂ìnîìsíɛ̃̀ìsúnɔ̋ìtwîìk͡púnɔ̋ìdû
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South GuangGuaákònyɔ́sã́nɛ̃̀nĩ́sĩ̀ɛ̀sùnɔ̃́twík͡plɔ̃́ìdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South GuangLarteh (1)kɔ́ɲyɔ́sánɛ́núsíɛ̀súnɔ́tɕɥík͡pʋ́nɔ́dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South GuangLarteh (2)kõɲɔ̃sãnɛ̃nũsĩɛ̃sũnɔ̃cuik͡plɔ̃du
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, WesternAbouré (Abure)okuèaɲùnɳànnànnnúncɪɛ̀ncʋ̀nmɔ̀kʋ̀ɛ́puálɛ́hʋ̀nóblún

See also

References

Footnotes
  1. MEK Dakubu (2005). "Kwa Languages". In Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.:
    "except at the lower levels of classification such as the Tano, Potou–Tano, and Ewe-Fon (Gbe) groups, genetic relationships among these languages are quite distant. It has never been adequately demonstrated using the comparative method that Akan, Ga, Ewe, and the Togo Mountain languages are more closely related to one another than to any other languages."
  2. 1989, slightly revised in Blench & Williamson 2000:29
  3. Williamson & Blench 2000:29
  4. Dumestre, Gérard. 1971. Atlas linguistique de Côte-d'Ivoire: les langues de la région lagunaire. Abidjan: Institut de Linguistique Appliquée (ILA).
  5. Heine, Bernd. 1968. Die Verbreitung und Gliedering der Togorestsprachen (Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik vol. 1). Köln: Druckerei Wienand.
  6. Stewart, John M. 2004. The Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu reconstrucions updated. Manuscript.
  7. Snider, Keith L. 1990. The consonants of proto-Guang. Journal of West African languages 20(1), 3-26.
  8. Blench, Roger. 2004. The Ega Language of Côte d'Ivoire: Etymologies and Implications for Classification.
  9. Heath, Jeffrey. 2019. Pere lexicon [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3354193
  10. Blench, Roger. 2007. Recovering data on Mpra [=Mpre] a possible language isolate in North-Central Ghana.
  11. Blench, Roger. 2015. The Dompo language of Central Ghana and its affinities.
  12. Capo, Hounkpati B.C. 1991. A Comparative Phonology of Gbe. Publications in African Languages and Linguistics, 14. Berlin/New York: Foris Publications & Garome, Bénin: Labo Gbe (Int).
  13. Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.

Notations
  • Bennett, Patrick R. & Sterk, Jan P. (1977) 'South Central Niger–Congo: A reclassification'. Studies in African Linguistics, 8, 241–273.
  • Hintze, Ursula (1959) Bibliographie der Kwa-Sprachen und der Sprachen der Togo-Restvölker (mit 11 zweifarbigen Sprachenkarten). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
  • Stewart, John M. (1989) 'Kwa'. In: Bendor-Samuel & Hartell (eds.) The Niger–Congo languages. Lanham, MD: The University Press of America.
  • Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (1952) Languages of West Africa (Handbook of African Languages Part II). London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Williamson, Kay & Blench, Roger (2000) 'Niger–Congo', in Heine, Bernd and Nurse, Derek (eds) African Languages - An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, pp. 11–42.
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