Military of New Spain

Fort San Juan de Ulúa, the Spanish fortress in Veracruz.

In sharp contrast to New France's militarization, but also in contrast to the experience of the Thirteen Colonies during the French and Indian Wars, the military in New Spain played an insignificant role during the 17th century. The new Mexican society growing on the ruins left by the conquest was peaceful. The indigenous population was unarmed and the few popular uprisings could easily be defeated and posed no serious threat to Spanish power. In the interior of Mexico, there were only a couple of regular companies, which in the event of disruptions could be strengthened with levies from the merchant, haciendados, and artisan classes. The geographical limitations insulated the interior of Mexico from external enemies. The silver mines in the north were secured by the large desert areas that a hostile army could not penetrate. The deadly tropical diseases on the Caribbean coast, the lack of suitable bases on the West Coast, and the long and poor road network, made the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico, the only areas in need of defense, against hostile powers, pirates and smugglers.[1][2]

The Fort of San Diego in Acapulco.

The defense of New Spain against external enemies was based on a limited number of fortified port cities. On the west coast, there were no serious threats and the small Fort of San Diego in Acapulco, the port of call for the Manila galleon, was enough to meet all foreseeable contingencies. In the Caribbean, there were stronger fortifications to secure maritime communications with the mother country. The dominant winds led the silver galleons through the Straits of Florida; the fortress city of Havana, and the fortifications of St. Augustine in Florida, protected the only point where New Spain could really be threatened. On the surrounding mainland there were also strong fortress cities with regular garrisons. On the Mexican mainland it was Veracruz; in Yucatan, Campeche; and in the New Granada, Cartagena de Indias. As long as these fortresses could be held or quickly relieved, and as long as the large annual convoys could be assembled, there were no serious threats against New Spain.[1][2]

During the eighteenth century, Spanish conflicts with Britain threatened the strategic position of New Spain. The British government used its naval supremacy to its advantage during its many wars with the Dutch Republic, the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of Spain. During the Seven Years War, Havana was captured by the British. However, New Spain never came under any significant threat of capture by any foreign nation, and thus continued under Spanish rule peacefully until the Mexican war of Independence. [2] [3]

Uniforms of the four new colonial regiments raised through the Bourbon reforms, 1767–1789.

The main goal of the Bourbon reforms in New Spain was to strengthen its defensive capabilities, although it led to significant social and political changes. Militarily, the reform aimed to strengthen the coastal fortifications, increasing the size of local garrisons by raising more colonial troops, and to rotate units between Spain and its colonies on a regular basis. The military reforms in themselves did not alter social relationships, but since the military buildup in Spain proper limited the means available for colonial defense, the reformers decided to arm the colonial population. Hence, a disciplined and organized permanent militia was created. Although mainly consisting of criollos, it was still considered new and dangerous to arm any others than peninsulares. The lack of suitable criollo recruits in some areas led the Spanish military authorities to organize militia units of pardos and morenos. The arming of people of color was an even greater breach with traditional policy than arming white Mexicans.[2] [3]

Dragon de cuera from the end of the eighteenth century.

The northern frontier, the Provincias Internas, with its population of nomadic Indians, was the only warlike area in Mexico. Apaches, Navaho, Comanches, and other native peoples not subordinated to the Spanish authorities, attacked the settled population, both the Spanish speakers, living on mission stations and cattle ranches or in mining villages, and the Pueblo Indians living in their prehistoric villages. The frontier area contained a third of Mexico's territory, and only one road, the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, connected the frontier with Mexico City, 2,000 km away. The defenses of the northern frontier consisted of a series of forts or strongholds, presidios. They were garrisoned by a special type of soldiers, the soldados de cuera, whose equipment was adapted to Native American warfare. They took their name from the heavy leather armor they wore in the field as a protection against Indian arrows. Besides them, and their Indian scouts (Indios exploradores), Indian auxiliaries (Indios auxiliaries) under Spanish command fought against the nomadic Indians. . A special form of Indian auxiliaries was the Indios amigos that fought under their own captains.[4][5][6][7][8]