Mysorean invasion of Malabar

Canara forces invaded northern Malabar in 1732 at the invitation of the Arakkal. Under the command of Gopalaji, 30000 strong Canara soldiers, easily overran prince Kunhi Ambu's (Cunhi Homo) forts in northern Kolathunad. By early 1734 the Canara soldiers captured Kudali and Dharmapatnam. By 1736, the Canara army was driven out of the whole of northern Malabar with assistance from the English East India Company. However, the Prince Regent incurred a huge debt with the Company factors at Tellichery as a result.[5]

The Nayaks of the Kingdom of Bednur (Keladi, Ikkeri Nayak Kingdom) planned another attack on Kolathunad in 1737. Prince Kunhi Ambu agreed to sign a peace treaty with the Canara which fixed the northern border of Kolathunad on the Madayi. The English factors of Tellicherry also signed their own treaty with the Nayak of Bedanur which guaranteed the integrity of English trading concessions in Malabar in the event of future conflicts between the Canara and Kolathunad.[5]

Hyder Ali first marched to present-day Kerala in 1757 as per request of King of Palghat who was a long-time military foe of the Zamorin of nearby Kingdom of Calicut. Hyder Ali, who at that time was the Faujdar of Dindigul under Kingdom of Mysore, with a force of 2,500 horses and 7,500 men supported by Palghat troops, marched into southern Malabar. The army defeated the Calicut army and reached as far as Arabian Sea. The main intention of this movement to Malabar was to capture the vast treasuries of the rulers of Malabar. Malabar Coast was famous for its foreign spice trade from ancient times. Zamorin came to a treaty with Haider Ali, in which he was demanded to pay twelve hundred thousand rupees as the war reparations. However, the Zamorin technically deceived Hyder Ali after the return of the Mysore Army from Malabar.[6] But, for his role in these activities Hyder Ali was rewarded by Devaraja with the jaghir (regional governorship) of Bangalore.

The Calicut army failed because Hyder's troops were organised, armed and trained in the most modern fashion whereas Calicut army, like rest of armies of kings of Malabar, relied on feudal levies. Zamorin eventually agreed to pay ₹1,200,000 as indemnity to Hyder Ali and so Hyder Ali withdrew. King of Calicut, despite the invasion, did not modernise his army – a neglect for which he paid nine years later.

Map showing Malabar and Cochin under Mysore

When news of Hyder Ali's conquest of Kingdom of Bednur reached Ali Rajah of Cannanore in 1763, he promptly requested Hyder to invade present-day Kerala and help him deal with Zamorin of Calicut. This Muslim chieftain in Cannanore, an old rival of the neighbouring powerful Kolathiri, was an active ally of Mysore during the years of occupation.[7][8] Hyder Ali agreed and in 1766 he marched into Malabar through Mangalore with a force of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalries and a park of field guns. During this time he was desperate for a port which opens to the Arabian sea, as his French allies were supposed to transfer weapons, ammunition and horses against the British. Mahe, a French-controlled port, lay in the middle of Malabar. With his modern army, Hyder Ali easily defeated all the petty kingdoms on the Malabar, beginning with Kolathunad.

Ali Raja of Cannanore, a long rival of Kolathiri, seized and set fire to the palace of Kolathiri Raja. The latter escaped with his followers to the then-British settlement at Tellicherry. After the victory, Hyder Ali entered the Kingdom of Kottayam in present-day North Malabar and occupied it, with assistance from native Muslims, after some resistance by the Kottayam army.[9] The first serious resistance encountered by Hyder Ali's army was in Kadathanad, followed by a series of atrocities against the natives.

Thalassery fort, Thalassery

After taking Calicut in a bloody battle, Hyder Ali, with a large amount of money, marched south-east and moved towards Coimbatore through Palghat. Mysore appointed Ali Raja as military governor and Madanna (a former revenue officer) as civil governor of the newly acquired province of Malabar.[10]

Shortly after Raza Ali, who was Hyder Ali's lieutenant in command, returned to Coimbatore, Hindu fighters hidden in the forests[10] rebelled against the Mysore authorities. They, re-occupied forts and large portions of land in the monsoon season. However, by June 1766, Hyder Ali himself returned to Malabar and imposed his troops on the rebels, killing many nair soldiers and deporting over 15,000 Nairs to Kanara. The Gazetteers state that only 200 of 15,000 Nairs being deported to Kanara survived. One of the most critical battles occurred at Putiyangadi in the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunad) where the Hindus suffered a complete defeat. The Mysore army stormed the village and re-captured it. Chaotically hundreds of Hindu local soldiers escaped to the forest hideouts again.

Sultan Bathery derives its present name from Tipu Sultan of Mysore who used the Jain temple here and used it as his battery hence the name Sultan's Battery

Mysore's response to was harsh, and after putting down the rebellion, many Hindu fighters were executed,and thousands of others were forcibly relocated to the Mysore highlands. To prevent another armed uprising, Hyder Ali suggested anti-Nair laws to the district and levied additional taxes as punishment against rebellious Nair chiefs.

Eralppad, second-line successor to the throne at Calicut, continued his attacks against the Mysore forces from southern Malabar. Eventually, forced by continuous instability and rebellions, Hyder Ali agreed cede many parts of Malabar to local Hindu rulers (as age-old customs existed in Malabar) as tributary states under the Kingdom of Mysore.[11] Kolathunad and Palakkad, the strategic entries to Malabar, remained under the central rule from Mysore. Years later, Kolathunad was given to Kolathiri through some negotiations.

Palakkad Fort

At the start of 1767, the Mysore army unsuccessfully stormed the Kingdom of Travancore from the north.

In 1767, the whole of Malabar again revolted Mysore's army of 4,000 men, who were defeated by 2,000 Kottayam Nairs in Northern Malabar. All baggage, arms and ammunition of army was looted by the Nair rebels. Mysorean garrisons were trapped by Nair rebels who seized the countryside and ambushed Mysore convoys and communications with great success.[12]

The following year, the English East India Company, under Captain Thomas Henry, sieged the Sultan Bathery Fort (Avara fort) to interrupt the supply of arms to Arakkal Kingdom, with a promised help from local kingdoms. But the British were forced to retreat in the retaliation.

Mysore army retreated from Malabar temporarily in 1768, successfully crushing the uprisings and building the strategic Palakkad Fort.[10] The authority over Kolathunad was now given to the Arakkal Kingdom. Skirmishes between Arakkal and the Company continued, and in 1770, the Company reclaimed Randattara.

In 1773, Mysore forces under Said Saheb marched to Malabar through the Thamarassery Pass, since the Hindu rulers had broke the earlier treaties on paying tributes.[10] So, again in the Malabar came under the direct Mysore authority.

Mysore conducted a second military movement in 1774, concentrating on the extremely ancient and unsurpassed treasures of the Main Temple in the city of Thiruvananthapuram, in Travancore. Also, Travancore has given refuge to the political enemies of Mysore from Malabar. Slowly Hyder Ali moved southwards with a huge army and negotiated with the Dutch. He wanted free passage to Travancore through Dutch territories, which was refused (the Dutch owed Travancore after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel). As Travancore refused to stop the construction of Nedumkotta fortification, which formed the northern defences of Travancore, rumours of a proposed invasion of Travancore started developing.

The relics of the entrance of travancore lines

Hyder Ali asked the rulers of Cochin and of Travancore to pay tribute as vassal states. Cochin was asked to pay a total of Rs. 40 0,000 and ten elephants, while Travancore was asked to pay Rs. 1,500,000 and thirty elephants. The Cochin royals agreed to pay the amount and accepted the Mysore's superiority. Finally, Malabar and Cochin came under the Mysore rule, opening Malabar Coast to the kings of Mysore. However the King of Travancore, who was under the protection of the East India Company, refused to pay the tribute.

Eventually, the Mysore army began to move to Travancore from the north. The Dutch military garrison at Cranganore Fort tried to stall the movement. Hyder Ali asked his commander Sardar Khan to take an army of 10,000 along the Cochin Kingdom. In August 1776, Cochin was invaded from the north and the fort at Trichur was captured.

After the surrender of the ruler of Cochin, Hyder advanced to the Travancore Defence Lines (the Nedumkotta fortifications). By this time Airoor and Chetuva Fort were ceded to Mysore. Meanwhile, the Dutch, with the help of the Travancore Nair Army, put down an attempt by the Mysore forces to capture the Cranganore Fort. The ruler of Cranganore, however surrendered to Hyder Ali, though the Dutch stormed his palace and captured it in January 1778.

Relics of Cranganore Fort

After this incident, Hyder's forces engaged in small-scale attacks and ambushes throughout Malabar, with the Travancore, English and Dutch forces as well as with rooting Nair mutineers in northern Malabar. By 1778, the Mysore allied themselves with the French, who was at war with the British Empire. In the same year, the English captured Mahé and Pondicherry. The newly appointed king of Kolathunad was with the Mysore, providing crucial supplies to the war and by March, Kolathiri had occupied Randattara. Soon, Hyder Ali removed the kings of Kadathanad and Kottayam who were providing the English in their campaigns. However, after facing losses in Calicut, Palghat and Tinnevelly, Hyder retreated to Mysore before planning another attack on Travancore.[13][14]

The English East India Company captured the French controlled port at Mahé in Malabar in 1779. Mahé was of great strategic importance to Hyder Ali, who received French supplied arms and munition through the port, and Hyder had not only explicitly told the British it was under his protection, he had also provided troops for its defence.On 2 July 1780, Hyder Ali declared war against the English East India Company, signalling the start of what was later called the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1779–1784).[15] By February 1782, Dharpattom, Nitore, Calicut, and Palakkad Fort surrendered to the British forces under Major Abington. Sardar Ali Khan, the Mysore commander, died later.[15]

During the summer of 1782, East India Company officials in Bombay sent additional troops to Tellicherry, from whence they continued operations against Mysorean holdings in the Malabar. Hyder Ali sent his elder Tipu Sultan and a strong force to counter this threat, and the latter had successfully pinned this force at Ponnani.[15]

Tired of continuous setbacks, Hyder Ali then sent an army unit under Makhdoom Ali to Malabar to restrain the anti-Mysore activities through the south. Meanwhile, Major Abington and Colonel Humberstone, who were in Calicut, were ordered to prevent the advance of Makhdoom Ali's army from the south. In the following battle in Tiroorangadi, more than 400 Mysore soldiers, including Makhdoom Ali, were killed. Colonel Humberstone chased the Mysore army to Ponnani, with the principal aim of capturing the Palakkad Fort. Due to a thundering torrential storm in Ponnani River, however, Colonel Humberstone retreated to Calicut. Colonel Humberstone then moved his unit up to Trithala and the neighbourhoods of Mankeri Fort, but again retreated to Ponnani to the fear of a surprise attack from the Mysore-Ali Raja coalition forces intended to siege forces in the extreme weather conditions. Major Macleod subsequently reached Ponnani before taking over the command of British forces on the Malabar Coast.[15] Shortly, Tipu's forces stormed the English camped at Ponnani, but 200 of his men were killed so he temporarily retreated. Simultaneously, a naval force under Edward Hughes reached Ponnani, but the Mysore army threatened the struggling English with a dreadful attack at any time. So, Tipu Sultan was successful pinning the English forces force at Ponnani.

It was here Tipu learned of Hyder Ali's sudden death due to cancer. Tipu Sultan's precipitate departure from the scene provided some relief to the British force, but Bombay officials had sent further reinforcements under General Matthews to Ponnani.[15]

The British captured Mangalore in March 1783, but Tipu, now the ruler of Mysore, recaptured Bednorem before besieging and eventually capturing Mangalore. At the same time, in the Tanjore region, Stuart's army joined with those of Colonel Fullarton before the latter marched along the Dindigul-Dharapuram-Palakkad route and sieged the Palakkad Fort. Captain Midland and Sir Thomas under Colonel Fullarton successfully captured Palakkad Fort on 14 November 1783. During this time, the Company officials, having received orders from London to bring an end to the war, entered negotiations with Tipu Sultan. Pursuant to a preliminary ceasefire, Colonel Fullarton was ordered to abandon all of his recent conquests. However, due to allegations that Tipu violated terms of the ceasefire at Mangalore, Fullarton remained at Palakkad Fort. During this time, a prince from the Zamorin dynasty emerged and the English retreated conferring the Fort to the prince. But, soon Tipu's forces marched to Palakkad fort and occupied it with the entire southern Malabar.[15]

In December 1783, General Macleod, with fresh support of the French, captured Cannanore from the Arakkal, who was an ally of Mysore in Malabar. This was followed by Beebi's failed negotiation attempt with the British.[15]

The war was ended on 11 March 1784 with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore, in which both sides agreed to restore the others' lands to the status quo ante bellum. By this treaty, the British (and the Nair kings) controlled the entire northern Malabar, and Mysore ruled southern Malabar. And General Macleod was forced to move back forces from Cannanore.[15]

After the Second Anglo-Mysore War, the Mysore ruled Malabar which experienced numerous anti-Mysore uprisings by the local Hindu population against the new land taxes. Tipu Sultan, to put an end to the land problems appointed the officer Arshad Beg Khan as the Civil Governor of Malabar. Khan soon retired from service and advised to Tipu to visit the region by his own. In 1788, Tipu paid an official visit to Malabar and talked with the Resident Gribble about the construction of new city near Beypore.[15]

In 1787, the Mysore captured Iruvazhinadu by murdering Kurungothu Nair, the ruler of Iruvazhinadu and an old ally of the French.[15] The French then became the closest ally of Mysore, continuing to supply arms to the kingdom. In the meantime, Arakkal Beebi allied with the English and Kolathiri replaced them as the ally of Mysore. Kolathiri captured Randattara and Darmadom from the English. Later in 1789, however, the company recaptured Darmadom.

Almost all female members and many male members of different Royal families such as Chirakkal (Kolathiri) and Calicut (Zamorin), and chieftains' families like Punnathoor, Nilamboor, Kavalapara and Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, fled to Travancore with all the Temple-wealth in their dominions, and found political asylum there from Mysore under Tipu, and temporarily settled down in different parts of Travancore. Even after the fall of Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatanam, many of these families preferred to remain in Travancore. The Chirackal (Kolathiri) were in fact a branch of Travancore Royal Family itself, originated in Thiruvananthapuram and based in Kannur, with a centuries-old tradition of mutual adoption of heirs with the latter.

Tipu Sultan decided to tighten his grip on the possessions in Malabar and to occupy Travancore as he saw the control of ports and access of routes to them highly strategic. The control over Travancore was always been a dream of the Mysore sultans, and Hyder Ali's attempt to defeat Travancore was failed in 1767. The kingdom of Travancore had been a target of Tipu Sultan since the end of the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Indirect attempts to take over the kingdom had failed in 1788, and Archibald Campbell, the Madras president at the time, had warned Tipu that an attack on Travancore would be treated as a declaration of war on the Company.[16] Tipu Sultan received invitation to intervene from the ruler of Cannanore, and soon the Mysore forces were in Malabar.[10] Initially Tipu Sultan tried to induce Travancore tactically with the help of the Kingdom of Cochin, but the King of Cochin refused and allied with Travancore.[10]

Monitoring closely the conquest of Mysore on Malabar and the making of Cochin to a tributary state, Travancore had bought Cranganore and Pallippuram forts from the Dutch. Travancore deteriorated relations by extending the Nedunkotta fortifications along the border with Mysore into territory claimed by Mysore in Cochin. Travancore, via the Nawab of Carnatic, found relations with the English East India Company and expected a retaliation by them on an attack on the Nedunkotta fortifications.

In 1789, Tipu sent forces to the Malabar to put down a rebellion; many found political asylum in Travancore and Cochin in the wake of his advance.[17]

In late 1789, Tipu began to build up troops at Coimbatore in preparation for an assault on the Nedumkotta, the fortified line of defence built by Dharma Raja of Travancore To follow the 1789 rebels.[15]

On 28,29 December 1789, Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta from the north, signalling the start of the Battle of the Nedumkotta (Travancore-Mysore War).Out of his army numbering several tens of thousands, about 14,000 along with committed local Muslim militia marched towards the fortifications.

By 29 December, a large portion of the right flank of Nedumkotta was under the control of Mysore army. Only a 16 feet (4.9 m)wide and 20 feet (6.1 m) deep ditch separated the Kingdom of Travancore from Mysore forces. Tipu Sultan commanded his soldiers to level up the ditch, so that his army can advance, while retreating Travancore soldiers and militiamen regrouped on the other side of the ditch. Unable to fill the ditch under heavy fire from the enemy, Tipu ordered his soldiers to march forward through a very narrow passage. This move backfired on the Mysore, as a group of two dozen Nair militiamen from the Nandyat kalari under Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai ambushed their enemies half-way. A few dozen Mysore soldiers died of direct gun-fire, and the commanding officer was killed. Many more panicked and in the ensuing chaos fell into the ditch and died. The reinforcements sent by the Mysore were prevented from merging with the main contingent by a batch of the Travancore regular army. The Mysore army suffered severe casualties. Several high-ranking Mysorean officers were taken prisoner, including five Europeans.

The onset of monsoons (there is also a legend that a small group of Travancorean amrmy led by Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai and Kunjai Kutty Pillai went upstream and destroyed the dam at Bhoothathankettu causing heavy flash floods in the Periyar river) prevented Tipu from moving south (combat being much more difficult during the monsoon season) and in the meantime, the British declared war on Tipu in favour of their ally, Travancore. Tipu retreated to defend his capital in the midst of the campaign owing to inhospitable weather and tight defense of travancore army[10]

In late 1790, British forces took control of the Malabar Coast. A force under Colonel Hartley gained a decisive victory (in the Battle of Calicut) in December, while a second under Robert Abercromby routed the Mysore at Cannanore a few days later.[18]

Battle of Calicut (1790)

Main article: Battle of Calicut (1790)

Map of south India, showing Malabar under East India Company

The Battle of Calicut (also called the "Battle of Thiroorangadi") took place between 7 and 12 December 1790, at Thiroorangadi. Three regiments from the British East India Company, consisting of 1,500 men, led by Lieutenant Colonel James Hartley, decisively defeated a 9,000-man Mysore army, killing or wounding about 1,000, and taking a large number of prisoners, including the commander, Hussein Ali.

By the Treaty of Seringapatam signed in 1792, Malabar ceded to the English East India Company. The treaty resulted in a sharp curtailment of Mysore's borders to the advantage of the Mahrattas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Madras Presidency. The districts of Malabar, Salem, Bellary and Anantapur were ceded to the Madras presidency.[19]

Sultans of Mysore changed the ancient landlord system in Malabar just like the changes which took place in Kingdom of Cochin and Travancore. To control the region, Tipu Sultan adopted strong measures against Nair nobles of Malabar and established a centralised administrative system. This led to the marginalization of Nair and the affluent rise of a subsequent Muslim elite. The changes in Malabar due to the Mysore invasions were as follows:

• Due to the fleeing of the local Nair chieftains and landlords to Travancore lead to a redistribution of landed wealth. However, for revenues, Tipu introduced the "Jamabandi" system to collect taxes directly from peasants.
• Land was surveyed extensively and classified. Taxes were fixed considering the difference of land and crops and for some crops taxes were reduced.
• Tipu introduced monopoly in products like pepper, coconut, tobacco, sandalwood, teak etc.
• The roads developed by Tipu for military purposes were helpful for the development of trade.

• Local Resistance to Mysore Rule in Malabar
• Anglo-Mysore Wars
• Pazhassi Raja
• Siege of Tellicherry