Ndu languages
The Ndu languages are the best known family of the Sepik languages of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. Ndu is the word for 'man' in the languages that make up this group. The languages were first identified as a related family by Kirschbaum in 1922.
| Ndu | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | East Sepik Province, in the Sepik River basin of Papua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Sepik
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | nduu1242 |
Along with the Arapesh languages, Ndu languages are among the best documented languages in the Sepik basin, with comprehensive grammars available for many languages.[1]
A diagnostic innovative feature in the Ndu languages is the replacement of the proto-Sepik pronoun *wun ‘I’ with proto-Ndu *an ~ *na.[1]
Languages
Abelam is the most populous language, with about 45,000 speakers, though Iatmül is better known to the outside world. There are eight to twelve Ndu languages; Usher (2020) counts nine:[2]
- Ngala
- Ndu proper
Also sometimes distinguished are Keak (close to Iatmul or Sos Kundi), Kwasengen (or Hanga Hundi, close to Ambulas), Burui (close to Gai Kundi), and Sengo.
Phonology
Most Sepik and neighboring languages have systems of three vowels, /ɨ ə a/, that are distinct only in height. Phonetic [i e u o] are a result of palatal and labial assimilation of /ɨ ə/ to adjacent consonants. The Ndu languages may take this reduction a step further: In these languages, /ɨ/ is used as an epenthetic vowel to break up consonant clusters in compound words. Within words, /ɨ/ only occurs between similar consonants, and seems to be explicable as epenthesis there as well, so that the only underlying vowels that need to be assumed are /ə/ and /a/. That is, the Ndu languages may be a rare case of a two-vowel system, the others being the Arrernte and Northwest Caucasian languages. However, contrasting analyses of these same languages may posit a dozen vowel monophthongs.[3]
For Ndu languages, the glottalized low vowel /a̭/ is often written as /aʔa/. This does not signify /a/ followed by a glottal stop and another /a/.[1]
Morphology
Ndu languages mark first and second person possessors with -n, and third person possessors with -k.[1]
- Ambulas
- wunɨ-nə mbalɨ
- 1SG-POSS pig
- ‘my pig’
- ndɨ-ku mbalɨ
- 3SG-POSS pig
- ‘his pig’
- Manambu
- wun-(n)a maːm
- 1SG-POSS older.sibling
- ‘my elder sister’
- ndɨ-kɨ-ndɨ yaːmb
- 3SG-POSS-M.SG road
- ‘his road’
Ndu languages make use of the general locative case suffix -mb (-m in Manambu):[1]
- Ambulas
- kwalɨ kambɨlɨ-mbə
- neck river LOC
- ‘at the source of the river’
- Manambu
- ŋgu-aːm
- water-LINK.LOC
- ‘in water’
Ndu languages have two dative-type case markers, with the forms and meanings varying across languages:[1]
- -t (-r in Manambu): allative meaning (‘to’ or ‘toward’)
- -k: benefactive (beneficiary or recipient) meaning
Examples of dative case markers in Ambulas and Manambu:[1]
- Ambulas
- ndu mbɨrɨ takwə mbɨr-ət
- man PL woman PL-ALL
- ‘toward the men and women’
- ɲjɨmba yə-kwə ndu-kɨ
- work do-PRS man-BEN
- ‘for the men who work’
- Manambu
- ar-aːr yi-tɨk
- lake-LINK.ALL go-1DU.SBJ.IMP
- ‘Let’s both go to the lake.’
- a-ndɨ ɲɨnɨk
- that-M.SG child.LINK.BEN
- ‘for that child’
Dative case markers are also used to mark animate objects of transitive verbs, which is a Sepik-Ramu areal feature. An example of the Ambulas allative case marker -t:[1]
- wunɨ ɲan-ɨt kenək-kwə
- 1SG child-ALL scold-PRS
- ‘I’m scolding the child.’
Proto-language
| Proto-Ndu | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Ndu languages |
Pronouns
Reconstructed proto-Ndu pronouns by Foley (2005):
sg du pl 1 *wɨn *an *nan 2m *mɨn *mpɨr *ŋkɨwr 2f *ɲɨn 3m *ntɨ *ntəy 3f *lɨ
Note that there is a gender distinction for first-person pronouns.
Lexicon
A phonological reconstruction of proto-Ndu has been proposed by Foley (2005). Lexical reconstructions from Foley (2005) are listed below.[4] The homeland of proto-Ndu is located just upstream of Ambunti.[1]
- Proto-Ndu reconstructions by Foley (2005)
gloss proto-Ndu Manambu Iatmul Abelam Sawos Boiken Ngala one *nək nək kɨta nek kɨtak napə nək three mɨwŋkwɨr kɨwpɨwk kɨwpɨwk kɨwpɨwk mɨwŋkɨwlɨykŋ mɨwŋkɨwl man *ntɨw ntiw ntɨw ntɨw tɨw riw water *ŋkɨw ŋkɨw ŋkɨw ŋkɨw ŋkɨw kɨw ŋkɨw rain *mayt war mayk mac wirɨ macɲ mac fire *ya ya ya ya hwɨypa ya sun *ɲa ɲə ɲa ɲa ɲa ɲa moon *mpapmɨw mpapɨw mpwap mpapmɨw pwapwə kamwɨ house *ŋkəy wɨy ŋkəy ŋkəy ŋkay kəy ŋkəy village təp ŋkəpma ŋkay wɨyə wɨyə breast *mɨwɲ mɨwɲ mɨpə mɨwɲə mwɨyɲ mɨwɲ tooth *nɨmpɨy ɨwk nɨmpɨy nɨmpɨy nɨmpɨy nɨmpɨy bone *apə ap avə apə yapə ampɨ tongue *tɨkŋa tɨkalɨr tɨkat tɨkŋalɨn tɨkŋalɨ tɨkan eye *mɨyR mɨyr mɨynɨy mɨynɨy mɨynɨy mɨyl nose *tam(w)ə tam tamə tamə tamə tamwə leg *man man man man man man rawɨ ear *wan wan wan wan wan egg mpant mpantɨ ŋkɨk mpwantɨ ŋkwɨy tree *mɨy mɨy mɨy mɨy mɨy mɨy name *cɨ cɨ cɨ ɨy cɨ cɨ pig *mp(w)al mpar mpak mpalɨ pwalɨ mpwal dog *wac, *war ac warə wacə warə pyəp snake *kampwəy kampay kampwəy kampwəy hampwəy mapwɨcɨ mosquito *kɨvɨy kɨvɨy kɨvyə kwɨyə mɨkɨycɨ cɨvyə louse təkɨyn mpakwə nɨmw kəmalɨ ɲən see *vɨ vɨ vɨ vɨ vɨ təyf eat *kɨ kɨ kɨ kə hə kɨ go *yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ come *ya ya ya ya ya ya sit *rə rɨ rɨ rə rə yəlkɨy stand *rap(m) rap rap rapm rapm
References
- Foley, William A. (2018). "The Languages of the Sepik-Ramu Basin and Environs". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 197–432. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- Ndu–Nggala, New Guinea World
- Gerd Jendraschek (2008) "The vowel system of Iatmul: emerging phonemes and unexpected contrasts" Archived 2009-09-20 at the Wayback Machine
- Foley, William A. (2005). "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 109–144. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
- William A. Foley (2005). "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik–Ramu basin." In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Pacific Linguistics 572. 109-144. Canberra: Australian National University.
- Donald C. Laycock (1965). The Ndu language family (Sepik District, New Guinea). Pacific Linguistics C-1. Canberra: Australian National University.