Greek revolt of 1567–1572

Social tensions intensified by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, as well as chronic economic crisis and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman authorities. Under this context during the 16th century various Orthodox communities lost their social and economic privileges that had been formerly recognized by Ottoman decrees.[1] Additionally, extensive imposition of extraordinary taxation by the Ottoman authorities in the Greek mainland and forced conscription to meet the increased demand of the Ottoman navy further deteriorated the situation.[1] Instances of widespread destruction of churches and systematic plundering of religious property were also recorded in contemporary sources, both Greek and foreign.[1]

As a result of this kind of intensified oppression and arbitrary rule the local population hoped for a military intervention by a Christian power.[1] Representatives of the Greek communities made several appeals for assistance against Ottoman rule.[2]

In Epirus the uprising begun at the end of 1566 in the coastal region of Himara. An Ottoman attempt to suppress the rebellion in September of that year failed.[3] In the summer of 1567 the rebellion spread across several villages, while a siege attempt against the castle of Nivica on the Ionian Sea coast in January 1568 was initially unsuccessful.[3] Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the Mani Peninsula on the southern edge of the Peloponnese revolted in the autumn of 1567.[4] The Maniot rebels received reinforcement by volunteers from Ioannina, who were landed there by a Spanish fleet.[4]

The Ottomans responded by dispatching a naval force to the coast of Epirus but the rebels managed to retreat inland and took advantage of the mountainous terrain. Additionally, in the summer of 1569, an Ottoman fortress was erected in a strategic location in Mani to monitor rebellious activity.[4] After a short decline, the rebellion reached a new momentum and the newly erected fortress was captured in the summer of 1570 with the support of a Venetian force.[4] Following the outbreak of the Ottoman–Venetian War in 1570, Venetian units also assisted the revolutionaries in Himara in the capture of the castle of Sopot on the Ionian Sea coast after a two-month siege in June 1570. The uprising spread to various parts of Epirus under Emmanuel Mormoris, with the guidance of local Greek nobles and various Stratioti military leaders such as Petros Lantzas.[5] The castle of Nivica was also taken in March 1571.[3]

The Battle of Lepanto of 1571, by Andries van Eertvelt

The Battle of Lepanto took place off the coast of Patras in the Ionian Sea on 10-14 November 1571. A significant number of Greeks participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League, while three Venetian galleys were commanded by Greek captains. Historian George Finlay (1877) stated with a certain decree of exaggeration that over 25,000 Greeks fought for the Holy League, while additionally 5,000 were in the Ottoman side. He concluded that their numbers "far exceeded that of the combatants of any of the nations engaged".[2] The Battle of Lepanto resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman fleet by the Holy League. As a result Greek-Venetian activities reached a new momentum and the leaders of the Orthodox Greek communities continued to invest their resources and energy for the purpose of uprooting Ottoman rule.[6]

News of the Christian victory spread immediately in the nearby region of Patras where the inhabitants rejoiced in the destruction of the Ottoman fleet. The local metropolitan bishop, Germanos, and the local nobility joined the movement. Soon after armed units were formed and expelled the Ottoman garrison. Meanwhile, some Ottoman crews that managed to flee from the victorious Christian fleet landed on the nearby coast of Peloponnese and were annihilated by the insurgents.[7] The rebellion was soon spread to nearby regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece, namely Aigio, Galaxidi, and Salona.[8] In Epirus, the combined Greek-Venetian force was again successful at the siege of Margariti .[9][3] As a result a region stretching from Argyrokastron down to Parga came under rebel control.[5] Among the revolutionary leaders, the Stratioti Georgios Renesis became active in Lefkada and Arta.[10] Moreover, representatives of Ioannina and the surrounding region initiated secret communications with the Venetians to overthrow their local Ottoman authorities.[6]

Large-scale unrest occurred in additional parts of the Ottoman Empire; in the islands of Aegina and Lefkada the Christian inhabitants rose in revolt, while in Naxos they declined to pay the jizya tax owed by the Christian subjects of the Empire.[3]

However, in 1572 it became apparent that the Venetians were about to sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans.[4] As a result, the Greeks that had cooperated with the Venetians turned to the Kingdom of Naples, then part of the Spanish Empire, for support.[11] The rebels in Mani approached the Spanish,[4] while others, such as Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos, visited Don Juan, commander-in-chief of the Holly Alliance.[12] Additionally, the metropolitan bishop of Monemvasia, Makarios Melissenos, and his brother, Theodore, initiated negotiations with both the Spanish and the Venetians.[4]

During April 1572 the rebellion was still active in parts of Mani and Monemvasia.[4] The Ottomans sent a large army as well as naval forces which attacked the rebellious provinces and compelled Emmanuel Mormoris to retreat to the castle of Sopot, where he was later arrested.[13] In October 1572 an attempt by Spain to land reinforcements in the coastal towns of Pylos and Modon failed.[4]

As a result of the Venetian withdrawal from the region the rebellion was doomed to end. Venice finally decided to sign a unilateral peace with the Ottomans in 1573.[11] On the other hand, Spain continued to encourage insurrections against the Ottoman Empire and acceded to the petitions of various rebels and potential rebels.[14] However, due to bad organization the uprising was finally suppressed and most of the leaders were executed by the Ottomans. Ottoman suppression was harsh in Patras and the city became almost deserted in the following years.[15] Among those executed were several nobles, among them metropolitan bishop Germanos, and the local nobility were mutilated.[16] In Ioannina the Ottoman governor proposed the expulsion of the entire Christian community from the castle and their replacement with Muslim settlers.[17] As a result during the last quarter of the 16th century Greek refugees fled to nearby Venetian-controlled areas, in particular the Ionian islands.[18]

• Brewer, David (16 April 2012). Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85772-167-9.
• Konstantinos., Giakoumis (2002). "The monasteries of Jorgucat and Vanishte in Dropull and of Spelaio in Lunxheri as monuments and institutions during the Ottoman period in Albania (16th-19th centuries)": 22. Retrieved 8 July 2018. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Hasiotis, Ioannis (1970). Οι Έλληνες στις παραμονές της ναυμαχίας της Ναυπάκτου: Εκκλήσεις, επαναστατικές κινήσεις και εξεγέρσεις στην Ελληνική χερσόνησο απο τις παραμονές ως το τέλος του Κυπριακού πολέμου (1568-1571) [The Greeks on the Eve of the Battle of Lepanto: Appeals, Revolutionary Movements and Uprisings in the Greek Peninsula from the Eve until the End of the War of Cyprus (1568-1571)] (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Society for Macedonian Studies.
• Hasiotis, Dimitrios (2011). "Anti-Turkish Movements in Macedonia before the 1821 Greek Revolution" (PDF). Modern and Contemporary Macedonia. 1. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
• Kotzageorgis, Fokion (2008). "Εξεγέρσεις στην Ελληνική χερσόνησο τον 16ο αι. και Οθωμανικές πηγές: Μια πρώτη προσέγγιση" [16th-century Revolts in the Greek Peninsula and Ottoman Sources: A First Approach] (PDF). ΚΘ΄ Πανελλήνιο Ιστορικό Συνέδριο, 16-18 Μαΐου 2008 & ΚΗ΄ Πανελλήνιο Ιστορικό Συνέδριο (Μέρος Β΄), 25-27 Μαΐου 2007. Πρακτικά [XXVIII Panhellenic Historical Conference, 16-18 May 2008 & XXVII Panhellenic Historical Conference (Part II), 25-27 May 2007. Proceedings] (in Greek). Hellenic Historical Society. pp. 19–32. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
• Tsiknakis, Kostas G. (2005). Επαναστατικές κινήσεις στη βορειοδυτική Πελοπόννησο στα τέλη του 16ου αιώνα [Revolutionary movements in the northwestern Peloponnese in the late 16th century] (in Greek). Dymi.
• Yildirim, Onur (2007). "The Battle of Lepanto and Its Impact on Ottoman History and Historiography" (PDF). Mediterraneo in Armi (Secc. XV-XVIII). 2: 533–556. ISSN 1828-1818.