Marthandavarma (novel)

The Travancore royal family follows Marumakkathayam as the rule of succession, which is collateral descent through maternal nephews.[7] The feudatory chiefs persuaded the sons of King Rama Varma, Pappu Thambi and Raman Thambi to claim their father's throne through Makkathayam, which is lineal descent through sons, while Marthanda Varma was the legal heir.[8] The novel opens in Kollavarsham 901, when feudatory chiefs are taking lethal actions against prince Marthanda Varma, while King Rama Varma headed to Tiruchirappalli for the treaty with Nayaks.[9] The plot moves two years ahead during when the payment to Madurai forces became arrears, the King become ill and bed ridden, feudatory chiefs and sons of Rama Varma joined hands in conspiring against the prince.[10]

The novel narrates how Marthanda Varma ascended to the throne overcoming hurdles with the help of his well wishers and the entanglements of their personal lives with the history of Travancore (Venad).[11]

C. V. Raman Pillai was introduced to historical fiction through the works of Sir Walter Scott and Alexandre Dumas during his days at Maharaja's College, Thiruvananthapuram.[15] After graduating in 1881, Pillai traveled to the southern provinces of Travancore with his friend P. Thanu Pillai, then the Tahsildar at Agastheeswaram, and became acquainted with the regional legends that he later incorporated into his novels.[16]

Before starting to write Marthandavarma, Pillai would read English novels and take notes.[17] While writing Marthandavarma, Pillai had difficulty sleeping and his constant betel chewing instigated his writing.[18] During the composition, Pillai's spouse and Mukkalampattu Janaki Amma were amanuenses, whenever one of them was free. However, the author's neighbor, Ms. Thazhamadathu Janaki Amma, actually transcribed more of the book than either of them.[17] Pillai went to Madras to pursue his law examination.[19]

In January 1890, the Malayalam novel Indulekha was released and became a topic of discussion in Madras.[21] The instant fame of Indulekha and its author, O. Chandumenon, incited C. V. Raman Pillai to complete his novel Marthandavarma.[22] N. Balakrishnan Nair recounts that a challenge was raised by some Malabarians as to whether there were any men in Travancore who could create another literary work like Indulekha, to which C. V. Raman Pillai reciprocated that he will prove it as affirmative.[23] For almost two months after that, the author was occupied in writing Marthandavarma.[22] C. V. Raman Pillai, while involved in the discussions of memorandum, mentioned to G. Parameswaran Pillai that with the publication of his novel, Marthandavarma, people would be proud about their early history. Eventually, he lost interest in passing his law examinations, as his main intention was to complete Marthandavarma and ready the manuscript for printing.[24] C. V. Raman Pillai left for Trivandrum after he was entrusted to translate the memorandum to Malayalam.[21] According to N. Balakrishnan Nair, the author rejoined in his job on Ciṅṅaṁ 9, 1066 (23 August 1890).[25]

C. V. Raman Pillai sent the completed chapters to his friend N. Raman Pillai[lower-roman 1] at Madras, who in turn edited and contributed to the manuscript.[27] The author's earlier experiences of having estranged from home, his life with Muslims at Hyderabad, having suggested converting to Islam and marry a Muslim girl were adapted to build the characterization of Shamsudeen and the descriptions of Pathan camp in the novel.[28] The character of Karthyayani Amma is based on his elder sister, and the attire of Velu Kuruppu is based on the outlook of K. C. Kesava Pillai.[25]

According to P. K. Parameswaran Nair, consensus is the novel was developed during 1890, though he claimed that the author wrote it between 1883 and 1885, which contradicts his own statement that C. V. Raman Pillai thought about writing a novel only at the age of twenty-eight years, which is around 1887.[29] P. Venugopalan affirms that there is an earlier version of the novel, and that N. Raman Pillai listened to a reading of an early draft while at Madras.[30] The affirmation about the inclusion of Subhadra in the earlier version of novel brought out another contradiction to the claim of P. K. Parameswaran Nair with his own quotes from the words of C. V. Raman Pillai, which state that the author envisioned the character of Subhadra through his wife, Bhageeridhi Amma, whom he married only in November 1887.[31] One of Pillai's later amanuenses, K. R. Prameswaran Pilla, quoted the author as saying that he started writing Marthandavarma while staying in Madras.[32] N. Balakrishanan Nair notes that, Pillai made several visits to Madras with the particulars from N. Raman Pillai's home, while G. Parameswaran Pillai and the latter were in Madras.[33] George Irumbayam asked P. K. Parameswaran Nair about the existence of such a letter; who said that he had lost it. The claim of P. K. Parameswaran Nair and those who supported the same were concluded as attempts of fans of C. V. Raman Pillai, whom they wanted to cast as the first novelist of Malayalam literature, and George Irumbayam remarked that the fans went to the extent of not believing the words of the writer in the deliberation of their attempt.[34]

P. K. Parameswaran Nair states that the proceedings with printers at Madras were initiated after the completion of novel writing, which contradicts his own statement about the completion of printing till 150 pages while quoting a letter from N. Raman Pillai, whose words indicate that the scripting was in progress.[27] K. R. Parameswaran Pilla notes that the printing of the novel was started after the completion of third chapter.[35] The printing was done at Messrs. Addison & Co., Madras, to whom the manuscripts were passed over by N. Raman Pillai.[27] N. Balakrishnan Nair points that C. V. Raman Pillai went to hometown from Madras to arrange the money for printing, and during the time, he sent the manuscripts to N. Raman Pillai.[23]

C. V. Raman Pillai was involved in the Malayalam translation of memorandum proposed by G. Prameswaran Pillai titled then as Malayāḷi Memorial followed by the printing and getting the signatures from supporters, and being involved in the activities, he fell short of money as some promised sponsors pulled out fearing an adverse reaction from Government.[36] K. P. Sankara Menon and G. Parameswaran Pillai came to Trivandrum by the end of December 1890 for campaigning about the memorandum. C. V. Raman Pillai bore the expenses of their commutations and proceedings, and went on to sell his wife's necklace to meet the requirements.[37] The memorandum was eventually sent to the king on 10 January 1891 by K. P. Sankara Menon.[38]

The financial crunch due to the situations put C. V. Raman Pillai in a difficulty that he could not meet the expenses to complete the printing of the remaining chapters as intended; so, he made a concise version and got it printed as part of twenty-sixth chapter, which thus became the final chapter of the novel. P. K. Parameswaran Nair states that there were three more chapters after the twenty-sixth chapter by referring to a letter from N. Raman Pillai, who came to know about the concise narration only after getting the printed copy as he had left to Thiruvananthapuram before the completion of printing, criticized the author regarding the same.[39] According to N. Balakrishnan Nair, the concise version included in twenty-sixth chapter is an abridgement of two intended chapters. C. V. Raman Pillai states in the preamble that he wanted to have an annexure at the end of the novel.[23]

When printing of further copies with errata was over, C. V. Raman Pillai made a request for permission on 13 April 1891 to submit the first copy at royal palace, and subsequently the book was released on 11 June 1891 after presenting the first copy to Aswathi Thirunal Marthanda Varma, to whom the book is also dedicated to.[40] Pillai sent two copies to Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran, one for the recipient and another for recipient's wife, which was acknowledged in the recipient's letter to the author dated 24 June 1891.[41] N. Balakrishnan Nair states that author gave several copies of book as complimentary ones, out of the total 1000 copies printed.[42] According to P. K. Parameswaran Nair, the publication of Marthandavarma was a great event in the history of Malayalam literature.[41] The novel was the first of its kind in Malayalam literature, the release of the novel made Malayalam the sixth[upper-alpha 1] Indian language and first Dravidian language to have a novel in the genre of historical fiction, thus became the first[upper-alpha 2] historical novel of South India.

In 1911, Kulakkunnathu Raman Menon,[lower-roman 2] who owned B. V. Book Depot at Trivandrum, acquired rights of the novel, to publish from his own publishing house.[53] C. V. Raman Pillai did a revision for the new edition, in which he had replaced the edits of N. Raman Pillai in the first edition with his own. The author corrected the flaws in the usages of Sanskrit and Malayalam words, together with the change of phrases that are in line with the then usages of Malayalam. The changes included the removal of a precognitive narration about the death of Padmanabhan Thambi at Nagercoil, removal of reference to an earlier spouse of character Anantham prior to her relationship with Sundarayyan and removal of references to mistresses from Thanjavur.[54] The copyrights of the novel were registered on 11 August 1911, and D. C. Kizhakemuri notes that the copyrights were reserved until 31 December 1972.[55]

All the reprints of the novel available after 1911 are only of the revised edition. Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society (SPCS) alias Sahithya Pravarthaka Shakarana Sangham of Kottayam, Poorna Publications of Kozhikode, and D. C. Books of Kottayam started publishing their editions from 1973, 1983, and 1992 respectively to remain as the major publishers[upper-alpha 3] of the novel.[57]

Marthandavarma has been translated into three languages, Tamil, English and Hindi as five different versions, among which two were in Tamil another two, were in English and one incomplete translation was in Hindi.

• 1936: Marthanda Varma (English) – The first English translation by B. K. Menon[lower-roman 3] was published by Kamalalaya Book Depot, Trivandrum in 1936, and was republished by Sahitya Akademi in 1998 after a revision by the daughter of B. K. Menon, Prema Jayakumar.[59]
• 1954: மார்த்தாண்ட வர்மா (Mārttāṇḍa Varmā, Tamil) – The first translation of the novel in Tamil was by O. Krishna Pillai. It was published by Kamalalaya Book Depot, Trivandrum.[60]
• 1979: Marthanda Varma (English) – The second English translation by R. Leela Devi was published by Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. A reprint by the same publisher was released in 1984.[61]
• 1990: मार्ताण्ड वर्मा (Mārtāṇḍa Varmā, Hindi) – Kunnukuzhy Krishnankutty has done the Hindi translation, which was serialized and left incomplete in the editions of journal Kēraḷ Jyōti from Kerala Hindi Prachar Sabha, Thiruvananthapuram during June 1990 to December 1990.[62]
• 2007: மார்த்தாண்ட வர்ம்மா (Mārttāṇḍa Varmmā, Tamil) – The second Tamil translation of the novel by P. Padmanabhan Thambi was published by Sahitya Akademi.[63]

In the review appeared on The Hindu, Madras edition dated 21 December 1891, the novel is mentioned as a respectable specimen what an Indian graduate is capable of accomplishing in the department of fiction.[65] P. Thanu Pillai rated the novel as a rare and valuable addition to the literature of Malayalam.[41] Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran and Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran ranked the novel as better than the heretofore-released novels[upper-alpha 5] by O. Chandu Menon,[67] 3. Indumathee Swayamvaram (ഇന്ദുമതീസ്വയംവരം, Indumatīsvayaṁvaraṁ) in 1890 by Padinjare Kovilakathu Ammaman Raja,[68] 4. Meenakshi (മീനാക്ഷി, Mīṉākṣi) in 1890 by Cheruvalathu Chathu Nair.[69]</ref> in Malayalam. Kilimanoor Ravi Varma Koil Thampuran remarked that he could not keep aside the novel once he started reading the book. P. Sundaram Pillai stated that he read the novel with so much pride.[41] The review in The Hindu criticized the free usage of Sanskrit words, which will make novel to be enjoyed by the elite people and not the general readers.[64] Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran criticized the inappropriate usages of Sanskrit words, among which some[upper-alpha 6] are remarked as unpardonable blunders.[70]

When Marthandavarma was released, the people of Trivandrum devoured it.[64] N. Balakrishnan Nair notes that the release of novel was celebrated like a literary festival at Trivandrum.[71] Though the novel became the topic of discussion in cottages, elite circles, clubs and law courts, the sale of book was very poor.[72] The author did not even get the required revenue to pay the printing costs, and at one point of time, he took one hundred numbers of unsold books as a bundle to his elder brother, who was then the Tehsildar at Muvattupuzha and demanded one hundred rupees. C. V. Raman Pillai had sent unsold copies of the novel to P. Ayyappan Pillai, the then Education Secretary and to his friend P. Thanu Pillai, the then Manager of Huzur Court (Court of Appeal) at their respective offices, to have those sold. N. Balakrishnan Nair notes that the remaining copies among the one thousand numbers of first print were damaged due to infestation by termites.[73] The general reading people slowly accepted the novel and, the author went on to release five more editions until 1911.[53]

The revised edition of the novel, published in 1911 by Kulalakkunnathu Raman Menon's publishing house,[lower-alpha 1] received overwhelming positive response and became one of the best sellers of the period. N. Balakrishnan Nair notes that the sale of book was similar to that of Adhyatma Ramayana and by 1951 Kamalalaya Book Depot released the 25^th edition.[53] P. Venugopalan states that it is not doubtful that Marthandavarma is the most sold book in Malayalam.[76]

In the preamble, Pillai states that he wrote the book with the intention of creating a model of historical romance in Malayalam; historical events of the eighteenth century serve as the skeleton of the story.[77] The novel presents the events during Kollavarsham 901 to 906 (Gregorian Calendar: 1726–1731), pertaining to disputes over the throne of Venad during 1729.[78] According to George Irumbayam, history is wrapped in romance, and K. M. Tharakan echoes that point.[79] The internal conflicts in this novel are presented through the character of Subhadra, while most of major conflicts in the novel are external.[80] Kalpatta Balakrishnan notes that Anathapadmanabhan's heroic adventures combine romance and history.[81] The novel promotes hero-worship and patriotism through romantic affectation, a mode maintained until the end.[82]

The realistic aspects of the novel are presented through conversations, which in its inherence and vigor provide an individuality to the story.[83] George Irumbayam is of the view that the romantic elements in the novel are intertwined with the realistic legibility of historical elements.[84] The honest behavior of Mangoikkal Kuruppu to the prince, the anxious preparations of Karthyayani Amma to receive Padmanabhan Thambi, short-tempered reactions of Shanku Assan represent realistic aspects in the novel.[85] N. Balakrishnan Nair states that the novel is a love story built around a serious period in the history of Travancore.[86] The romance of Ananthapadmanabhan and Parukutty is presented as a supporting aspect to heroism in the novel.[87] The romance between Ananthapadmanabhan and Parukutty gives a soul and emotional angle to the historical and political themes of the novel.[88] The historical plot about power struggle between Marthanda Varma and rebels is presented as rich and active through the love story of Ananthapadmanbhan and Parukutty.[89] The emotional factor of the novel is further emphasized with another plot of romance involving Ananthapadmanabhan with the unrequited love of Zulaikha, thereby making the love story a love triangle.[90] The story of Subhadra is also considered as a tragic love story, which strengthens the romantic aspects of the novel.[91] The love failures of Subhadra and Zulaikha aid in creating a favorable surrounding for the romantic aspects of the novel.[92] D. Benjamin remarks that the very first instance of romantic love is in this novel.[93] The longing of Parukutty for the return of her lover, Zulaikha's love failure are seen as reminiscences of romantic love, and latter is considered as foremost romantic heroine of Malayalam literature in romanticism.[94] The romantic aspects similar to that in Prometheus Unbound and in the apocalyptic poetry of William Blake are identified in the personality of Subhadra, with which the character coveys a conflict-oriented complexity of multi-colored romanticism.[95]

The author's political interests are shown in allegorical form.[96] The novel presents the conspiracies, power struggle, internal agitations in the political history of Travancore, and history provided the basic conflict and a suitable period.[97] Novelist incorporated political and social undercurrents of Venad in the novel, which discusses a conflict between the ruler and the ruled.[98] The social relevance lies in its questioning of the collateral rule of succession (Marumakkathayam) followed in Venad, with the failed agitation of Nair-Thambi clans to acquire power from Kshatriyas.[99] In a way, the basic theme of novel is the eruption of revolt against the collateral succession through maternal nephews, and the subsequent suppression of the revolt.[100] Kalpatta Balakrishnan notes that the major theme of the novel is power struggle between the royal head and the kingship seekers, and not a conflict between the ruled and the ruler.[101] The relevance of historical context is that, it is about the contest to acquire political power, and the political significance is that it is about forceful acquisition of royal power, and so novel is previewed as a political novel.[102] The freedom of thought that links the ruled ones to the power is presented through Mangoikkal Kuruppu's impeccable criticism of kingship.[103] In the high-paced narrative, the character of Subhadra creates the lot of responses, as she is the only political character in the novel, even though the character Marthanda Varma represents royal lineage, royal power and royal justice, where as Thambies and Pillas are the riotous group who try to topple the traditional rule of succession in the kingdom.[104] Subhadra represents the patriotic code of conduct, with which she heads to defeat the attempts of rebel groups, and eventually sacrifices her life.[105] The open claim for the throne and the subsequent agitations lead the course of actions in the novel; which in result is to topple the rule of succession of the kingdom.[106] This no-compromise fight for the throne makes the novel rather a political history of power struggle in Venad.[107] Novelist raises the royal position through the novel, not the personality of the royal head because the history in novel is the historical awareness constituted by the author.[108]

When the historical background is kept apart, the novel represents dramatic feud between the good and bad, and concludes to the complete failure of sin and partial success of goodness in the end.[109] The novel presents the fight between respectable and despicable characters as that in devasura conflict.[110] According to K. M. Tharakan, though novelist tries to preach global philosophy about the final victory of goodness through various conflicts in the plot, serious effort is not taken to unveil the human mindset; however, M. P. Paul mentions that author depicts peculiar skill in presenting minute emotions of human mind, in the novel.[111] Even though, the motif of the novel is politics, the curiosity generated in the novel is through exceptional presentation of interpersonal issues.[112] The novel successfully comprises history of the state, interpersonal relationships, and social issues in the outset of imagination.[113] The character of Subhadra adds the investigative mood to the plot, though she is considered as the foremost representation of tragedy in C. V. Raman Pillai's writings.[114] The amusement-thread of the novel is led by her secretive investigations similar to that of Sherlock Holmes.[115] The story of Subhadra is presented as a delightful tragedy, where she realizes her identity apart from the atrocities of her ancestors.[116]

N. Krishna Pillai and Prof. V. Anandakuttan Nair state that the novel comprises three plots, among which the first one is the political theme about the power struggle between Marthanda Varma and opponents, the second is the romance of Ananthapadmanabhan and Parukutty, and the third is the tragedy of Subhadra.[117] M. G. Sasibhooshan states that the plot consists of four sections, which are the above three together with the adventures of Marthanda Varma, and concordance of these sections made the novel as an exceptional literary work.[118]

The novel is presented in twenty-six chapters describing the historical events, and each chapter is provided with an epigraph in the form of verses that implies the content of the respective chapter.[119] The major events of the novel take place during Kollavarsham 903–904 (Gregorian Calendar: 1728), within a span of twenty-eight days, among which only eleven days are explicitly presented through the chapters from two to twenty-six. A night during the Kollavarsham 901 is presented in chapter one and a consolidated set of events until Kollavarsham 906 is narrated in the final chapter.[10] The novel switches to earlier periods, 1680s, 1703, 1720 while describing the backgrounds of Sundarayyan and Subhadra, marriage and breakup of Subhadra, and the relationship of Ananthapadmanabhan and Parukutty. Prof. Thumpamon Thomas points that the narration is as small water streams that eventually form into a waterfall similar to the strands in a twisted rope made of coir.[120] The author successfully combines geographical structure of locality and suitable historical period with a legitimacy of day and night, and an accuracy as in an almanac, through his narrative style.[121]

The story is narrated in a non-complex structure by maintaining the momentum of heroic valor and action, while presenting three dimensional characters.[122] The novel is noted to be focused on multiple heroes and heroines.[123] Grorge Irumbayam states that the hero of the novel is Ananthapadmanabhan and Parukkutty is the heroine, however also mentions that the novel has dual heroines due to the prominence of the character, Subhadra.[124] D. Benjamin notes that Marthanda Varma is the hero of novel.[125] Kalpatta Balakrishnan remarks that Ananthapadmanabhan and Parukutty are leads of the plot only when the story is a romance, and as the story is based on the heir-ship of Marthanda Varma who leads the course of actions, Ananthapadmanabhan is not the hero of the novel.[126] The historical environment created in the novel and the personalities of bygone period are coherent to the situations.[127] The characters are presented in a way that it is impossible to differentiate between fictional and historical ones.[128] N. Krishna Pillai notes that the major attributes of historical characters in the novel are specifically given by the author.[129] The presentation of novel is unique with the creation of unprecedented characters and not through structure complexity.[130]

The presentation of characters in the novel is noted to be similar to the appearance of roles in Kathakali.[131] The novel is noted for the usage of rhetorical embellishments in narration.[132] The novel uses a particular style of using verses from ballads, puranas, and archaic literary works in descriptions and dialogs pertaining to the narrative situation, among which usage of quotes from puranas are comparatively less to that from Aattakatha.[133] The major usages of quotes as epigraphs and inline ones are to indicate the plot of respective chapters or to point a particular behavior of characters, and this is noted to be a style inspired from Sir Walter Scott, as well as a manifestation of author's knowledge in the purans, legends, yesteryear ballads, and socio-cultural situation of Venad.[134] The narrative style comprises plenty of such embellishments as in a lyric, to form a rhetorical prose, and this is noted to be author's crookedness of narrative style.[135] The narrative style depicts a considerable level of the coherence between the consecutive sentences and in parts, and presents notions adapted from performance arts such as Kathakali, Play, Kudiyattam, Mohiniyattam, and Bharatanatyam.[136] The dramatic language attained in the narration is through the abundant usages of passive voice and gender-neutral pronouns in objective case, where as the archaic style of language is through usages of dative case.[137]

Pillai created a new style of his own for narration, in which author presents different style of languages for different characters.[138] N. Krishna Pillai points that 64% of the novel is used for conversations of characters.[139] The narration style interspersed with fine pieces of humor, and lively flashes of wit is stated as heartily attractive to the readers due to its simplicity and sweetness; which also leads the reader through the events of novel at fast pace.[140] The variance in the behavior of characters are shown through specific style of language used for particular characters, and the styles of language are vigorous in conversations.[141] The stylistic symbols among the specialties of language variance and author's idiolect marks the narration as a classic style.[142] The unveiling of truth and mystery in the end through conversations is arguably a perfection of narration technique, according to C. Sreekanta Kurup.[143]

The expansion of plot is noted to be through the stagnantly rising events, without pushing back the narration on the behest of describing the struggles of characters.[144] The narration keeps the reader in suspense, with the rise of incidents out of incidents, leading to unexpected intricacies and complications with a veil of mystery until the final revelations.[145] The novel is presented with so many events, the arrangements of which create a feel that plot is long enough to fit in a book double the present size of the novel.[146] The narration is presented in a manner that makes a reader to feel the accomplishment of wonders in the novel are inevitable.[147] The language used in the novel is simple and is not overly mixed with Sanskrit, when tallying with author's later novels.[148] The language used in this novel does not create any resistance to reading, unlike in his later novels.[149] The style of narration in Dharmaraja is termed as Kirmīravadhaśaili, adhering to author's terminology, Kiṟmīravadharīti,[upper-alpha 7] where as the narrative style used in this novel is termed as Śī Vī Śaili.[151] The author termed it as Mārttāṇḍavaṟmmā-style,[upper-alpha 8] which he admitted to not able to continue in his later works.[153]

The novel is identified as an incident-rich work interlaced with fast-paced events during the period of a well-known historical personality, there by possessing the most required aspect of a historical novel.[154]

Marthanda Varma

Ananthan

Dharmaraja

Ramayyan

Many of the characters in the novel are based on persons from history, legend and the author's life. Major characters borrowed from history include Prince Marthanda Varma (the title character) based on Marthanda Varma, Pappu Thambi and Raman Thambi based on the Thambi brothers, Ananthapadmanabhan based on Ananthan/Ananthapadmanabhan (a warrior and commander in the Travancore forces during the reign of Marthanda Varma), Mangoikkal Kuruppu based on Mangottu Assan (a martial arts master from Mancode[upper-alpha 9]), Ettuveettil Pillas based on Ettuveetil Pillamar and Ramayyan based on Ramayyan Dalawa.[155] Chulliyil Chadachi Marthandan Pilla is based on Chadachi Marthandan, a legendary figure from Chulliyur[upper-alpha 10].[156]

Other historically sourced characters are King Rama Varma based on Rajah Rama Varma, the little Prince Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma based on the infant Dharma Raja, and Ammattampurāṭṭi who is based on his mother.[157] There are also Narayanayyan (an assistant to Ramayyan Dalawa), and Arumukham Pilla (the acting Dalawa of Venad during Kollavarsham 901–903 and Dalawa during 904–909).[158]

Several of the events in the book are based on occurrences from history or legend, these include: the pact between King Rama Varma and Madurai Nayaks in Kollavarsham 901 at Tiruchirappalli for the latter to supply additional forces to Travancore for a fixed annual fee, the assassination attempts on Marthanda Varma at Kalliyankattu temple, at Panathara, near the Ezhava house at Perunkadavila and at the Nedumangad fort as well as the attempt by Velu Kuruppu and his men when the mad Channan helped Marthanda Varma hide inside a tree implying the aid by a Channan plougher to hide and another attempt when Marthanda Varma hid inside the big hole within a jack tree at the Neyyattinkara Sree Krishna Swami Temple, the attempted murder of the little Prince Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma in Kollavarsham 903 while he and his mother were traveling from Trivandrum to Attingal, the heirship claim by the Thambi brothers through linear succession against the collateral rule of succession followed in Venad, the treaty of the Thambi brothers with foreign forces to out-throw Marthanda Varma from power, the council of Ettuveettil Pillas planning the murder attempt on Marthanda Varma, the coup d'état by the Thambi brothers, Marthanda Varma's accession to the throne in Kollavarsham 904 following the illness and death of King Rama Varma and the detention of Arumukham Pilla by Madurai forces.[159]

Other events mentioned in the novel are the conquest of Desiganadu by Marthanda Varma after his accession to the throne and the Kalipankulam incident as a murder of five princes with the involvement of Ramanamadathil Pilla, as well as the death of Padmanabhan Thambi at the hands of Marthanda Varma's accomplices. The novel also refers to the attack of a Mukilan (a petty chieftain under Moghul emperor) in Travancore during Kollavarsham 853–855 when, a few families were converted to Mohammedians, and the tragic death of Iravikutti Pilla in the war against the forces of Thirumalai Nayak.[160]

The novel describes the setting as the kingdom of Venad under the rule of the King Rama Varma. The major events occur in and around Padmanabhapuram, the capital of the kingdom, and Thiruvananthapuram within Venad. Aralvaimozhi, or Āṟāṁvaḻi, and Edava or Idava are mentioned as the south-eastern, and north-western borders of Venad, respectively.

Much of the novel is set in Padmanabhapuram Palace, Charottu Palace, and Mangoikkal House. The Darbhakulam mansion and the Kalkulam mansion of Padmanabhapuram Palace existed during the timeline of the novel. The novel describes the residence at the place of the present southern mansion on the northern side of the contemporary palace. Prince Marthada Varma halts there on his way to Boothapandi and later Padmanabhan Thambi camps there, after which fifty members of the Channar people were executed at the palace compound.[161] Charottu Palace is 2 miles (3.218688 km) north of Padmanabhapuram Palace. The former is small, with only an enclosed quadrangular homestead (Nalukettu) and a cookhouse (Madapalli). Prince Marthanda Varma and his aide Parameswaran Pilla reside there after evading Padmanabhan Thambi at Padmanabhapuram Palace through the tunnel passage. The closed tunnel passage between Padmanabhapuram Palace and Charottu Palace had access from the Tāikoṭṭāraṁ (Mother's mansion) at the former palace, and cites its closed existence.[162]

Mangoikkal House is 2 Nazhika north to Charode. The house includes a grove, through which the mad Channan reaches Mangoikkal House to rescue Prince Marthanda Varma. The Mangoikkal kalari (martial arts school of Mangoikkal) is nearby which aid Mangoikkal Kuruppu and his nephews. The house name Mangoikkal is in reminiscence of the house of Mangottu Assan at Mancode, and the house name of the author's patron Kesavan Thambi Karyakkar, Nangoikkal.[163]

In the novel, Prince Marthanda Varma is cornered and trapped at Kalliancaud Temple or Kaḷḷiyankāṭṭukṣētraṁ, from where, he is later escaped as a Brahmin. The temple is Kalliancaud Sivan Kovil (located at 8°11'52"N 77°23'27"E). Ananthapadmanabhan is attacked and left for dead by Velu Kuruppu in Panchavankadu or Panchavan Forest, a forest area on the way to Nagercoil from the residence of Ananthapadmanbhan's mother near Kollavarsham 901. Prof. N. Krishna Pilla and Prof. V. Anandakuttan Nair state that Panchavankadu and Kalliyankadu are the same.[164]

The novel describes Thiruvananthapuram as the capital of the kingdom, but P. Venugopalan states that this is historically inaccurate, because the capital hadn't yet changed from Padmanabhapuram to Thiruvananthapuram.[165] The novel includes four major locations in Thiruvananthapuram: Thiruvananthapuram fort, Subhadra's house, Killi river, and Manacaud.

Thekkekoyikkal or the southern mansion within the fort is home to Prince Marthanda Varma.[166] In the novel, Velu Kuruppu tries to attack Marthada Varma, while the latter is on his way to the mansion, but is foiled by Shankarachar.[167] The novel mentions another location within the fort, the house Chembakassery. Scholars debate Chembakassery's historicity: P. K. Parameswaran Nair assumes that Chembakassery House never existed, where as the article Anantapadmanābhan nāṭāruṁ tiruvitāṁkūṟ niṟmmitiyuṁ states that the house existed and the author was familiar with it.[168] The fort present in the novel was later rebuilt during Kollavarsham 922–928 and eventually demolished after the independence of India; preserved ruins can be found at the east fort in Thiruvananthapuram.[169]

Subhadra's house is a few blocks north to the royal passage at Andiyirakkam.[170] Manacaud or Manakadu is referred to in the novel as the place where Pathan merchants are camped.[171] Fighters of Mangoikkal also camp there, where their final confrontation with the Thambi brothers and Ettuveettil Pillas take place.[172]

The novel explicitly mentions Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, P. Shangoony Menon, and also refers to Shankaracharyar as kēraḷēcārakaṟttāvŭ, which means the author of customs in Kerala, Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad as kavikulōttaṁsan (one at the crest of poets clan) and compares his lifetime to that of Sundarayyan.[189]

The novel uses the references to the Ettuveettil Pillas in the Sree Veera Marthandavarmacharitham Aattakatha, to form the characters and also uses the four-line verse about them as epigraph to the eleventh chapter. The character of Sundarayyan in the novel is similar to the character of Pichakappalli in this Aattakatha.[190]

The situations in which Marthanda Varma escapes the attempts on his life by Thambi's men are in line with similar events from the Marthandamahathmyam, a lyrical work written as a Kilippattu based on the stories about Marthanda Varma.[190]

The attack at Mangoikkal house by Padmanabhan Thambi's men is similar to the attack and eventual burning of Mangottu Assan's house in Ottan Katha, one of the ballads of Venad based on the stories about Marthanda Varma.[191]

Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott is considered to be the most influential work in the development of Marthandavarma.[192] Like in Ivanhoe, the first chapter of the novel opens with the description of a forest, and every chapter opens with an epigraph similar to those in Scott's books.[193] M. P. Paul claims that the characters Marthanda Vama, Ananthapadmanabhan, Chulliyil Chadachi Marthandan Pilla are based on characters from Ivanhoe, even though they are based on the history and legends of Venad.[194]

M. P. Paul also claims that the situations involving either the mad Channan, Subhadra or Thirumukhathu Pilla are similar to situations in King Lear by William Shakespeare, the character of Shanku Assan is similar to that of Dominie Sampson in Guy Mannering by Sir Walter Scott.[194] M. Leelavathy points that the character of Subhadra is prototyped from the Flora McIvor of Waverley by Sir Walter Scott.[195]

Neelikatha (subplot)

According to P. Venugopalan, the story of Panchavankattu Neeli (Pañcavankāṭṭunīli, lit. Neeli of Pachavan forest) in the third chapter of the novel is a combination of stories form the ballads Panchavankattu Neelikatha (Pañcavankāṭṭunīlikatha) and Neelikatha (Nīlikatha, lit. story of Neeli).[196] Thikkurissi Gangadharan states that Kaḷḷiyankāttunīli (Neeli of Kalliyancaud) is changed to Pañcavankāṭṭunīli by the author of the novel.[197]

The novel heavily incorporates verses from Nalacharitham Aattakatha (Day 1, Day 2, Day3, Day4) Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu, Sree Mahabharatham Kilippattu by Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, Harishchandracharitham Aattakatha by Pettayil Raman Pilla Asan, Ravanavijayam Aattakatha by Vidwan Rajarajavarma Koi Tampuran of Kilimanur, Rukmineeswayamvaram Aattakatha by Aswathi Thirunal Ramavarma Thampuran, Kalakeyawadham Aattakatha by Kōṭṭayattŭ Tampuran, Bashanaishadham Champu by Mazhamangalam as epigraphs, as descriptions and quotations.[198] The novel also draws verses from Kirmeerawadham Aattakatha by Kōṭṭayattŭ Tampuran, Subhadraharanam Aattakatha by Mantṟēṭattŭ Nampūtiri, Dakshayagam Aattakatha by Irayimman Thampi, Banayudham Aattakatha by Bālakavi Rāmaśāstrikaḷ, Keechakawadham Aattakatha by Irayimman Thampi, Rāmāyaṇaṁ (Irupattunālu vr̥ttaṁ), Ramayanam Vilpattu, Vethalacharitham Kilippattu by Kallēkuḷaṅṅara Rāghavapiṣāraṭi, Symanthakam Ottan Thullal by Kunchan Nambiar, Krishnarjunavijayam Thullal, Kuchelavritham Vanchipattu by Ramapurathu Varrier.[199] The novel also comprises verses from the ballads Neelikatha, Ponnarithal Katha, Mavaratham, and Iravikuttipillaporu.[200]

The novel mentions the languages, Malayalam, Tamil and Hindustani, among which the former one is used primarily for the narration with the adopted words from Tamil, Sanskrit, English, Hindustani, Persian and a conversation in a substitution cipher, Mulabhadra.

Malayalam is the primary language used in the novel, Sanskrit words are extensively used in the novel such as khādyapēyalēhyabhōjya[upper-alpha 14] (lit. chew-able, drinkable, lick-able, and eatable), tējaḥpuñjaṁ (lit. heap of ardor)[upper-alpha 15].[201] Tamil words and prepositions are used in the statements of Shanku Assan, Anantham, Mangoikkal Kuruppu and in the narrations, among which, the Tamil word nāyaki (lit. spouse [feminine])[upper-alpha 16] in the first edition of the novel is replaced with the malayalam one nāyika (lit. heroine)[upper-alpha 17] in the revised edition.[202] The novel uses the word caittān which is a form of Hindustani word šaitān (lit. devil)[upper-alpha 18], and also uses the word bahadūṟ, a form of Hindustani word bahādur[upper-alpha 19] (lit. brave).[203] The novel makes a malayalam usage for the shawl used by Thirumukhathu Pilla as sālva, which is analogous to the English word and the Persian version shāl,[upper-alpha 20] and for the meaning of guard while referring to the posture of Chembakassery Mootha Pilla at the door of Parukutty's room, the novel uses a word gāṭṭŭ akin to the obsolete form gard.[204]

The novel uses the word kinkāb which is a form of word kinkhab, which stands for silk brocade with gold and silver designs and term is a conjoined form of kin and khab originated or westernized from kam[upper-alpha 21] and khwab[upper-alpha 22] respectively.[205]

• Ambiguous usage – The novel presents the ambiguous usages of the term nazhika,[upper-alpha 23] as a unit of measure for time and as a unit of measure for length. Nazhika¹ as a unit of measure for time is analogous to Ghaṭi and 1 Nazhika corresponds to 24 minutes. Nazhika² is a unit of measure for length prevailed in yesteryear Kerala at different denominations such as 1 Nazhika = 1.828 kilometers and 1 Nazhika = 914.4 meters.[206] The C. V. Vyakhyanakosam[upper-alpha 24] states that 1 Nazhika in the novel corresponds to approximately 1.5 kilometers.[208]

• 1964: Marthandavarma – An abridged version by Kannan Janardhanan,[lower-roman 4] published by Kamalalaya Book Depot.[211]
• 1984: Kuttikalude Marthandavarma – An abridged version by M. M. Basheer, published by C. V. Raman Pillai National Foundation.[212]
• 2011: Marthandavarma – An abridged version by Prof. P. Ramachandran Nair, published by D. C. Books with illustrations by Reji Karimulackal.[213]
• 2012: Marthandavarma – An abridged version by V. Ramachandran, distributed through National Book Stall, Kottayam.[214]

In 1985, Amar Chitra Katha comics of IBH Publishers Pvt. Ltd released an English comic book adaptation of novel. The thirty-two pages of comic book adaptation was scripted by Radha Nair, illustrated by M. Mohandas, had the cover art by Ramesh Umrotkar under the consultancy by Ram Waeerkar and editing by Anant Pai.[215]

In 2007, the comic book adaptation was released in Malayalam by Balarama Amar Chithra Katha of Malayala Manorama group as Māṟttāṇḍavaṟmma.[216] The title The Legend of Maathaanda Varma was later altered to Maarthaanda Varma and released in 2010 by Amar Chitra Katha Pvt. Ltd, and it was included in the comics-collection The Great Indian Classics.[217]

Marthanda Varma (1933)

• 1933: Marthanda Varma – a silent black & white film directed by P. V Rao.

Further information: Marthanda Varma (film)

The film released on 12 May 1933 to face litigation from the publishers of the novel during the period through a court order as the producer of the movie did not have the required rights, subsequently the film was retained by court authorities and imposed a stay on further screening of the film till the closure of legal proceedings which later went against the film producer.[218] Thus, the film marked the first of its kind copyright case involving a literary work and a feature film in India by being a second feature film of Malayalam film industry and the novel being the first Malayalam literary work to adapt to a film from the same industry.[219]

• 1997: Kulam – a loose adaptation directed by Lenin Rajendran

Further information: Kulam (film)

The film released on 21 February 1997 through Ambadi Pictures, focuses only on the story of Subhadra, the pivotal character of the novel by exploring her marital and non-marital relationships finally to her murder by Kudamon Pilla.[220]

• 2003: Marthanda Varma  – A television serial directed by Suryan Chennithala.[221] The telecast of the serial commenced on 15 January 2003 at 18:00 hours as an episode of 30 minutes on Doordarshan’s Thiruvananthapuram channel.[222] The serial was abruptly discontinued after the telecast of fourth episode on 3 March 2003 due to non-agreement of terms between the producer and the television channel team.[223]
• 2010: Veera Marthanda Varma – A television serial produced by Colosceum Media Pvt Ltd.[224] The telecast commenced on 19 July 2010 through Surya TV as a daily serial on weekdays from Monday to Friday at 21:30 hours, which was later changed to weekend slot after the eighty-third episode in November 2010.[225] The telecast slots of the serial on Surya TV were intermittently skipped from March 2011 and eventually it was discontinued after the 128^th episode on 21 May 2011.[226]
• 2014: Marthanda Varma – A television play based on the script of stage adaptation by P. Venugopalan and performed in 2013, with the same cast members who reprised their roles from the stage performance except for a few including the replacement of Jiji Kalamandir by Vinayan for the role of mad Channan. The program was telecasted on 27 March 2014 at 15:30 hours through DD Malayalam, and it was re-telecasted as six episodes on Sundays from the following week.[227]

Marthandavarma was first adapted for theater in 1919 by Sree Chithira Thirunal Grandhasala. It featured an all-male cast. N. Rajan Nair notes that Nair societies of Palkulangara, Vanchiyoor and Kunnukuzhy also staged theatre adaptations in early days. The cultural organization, Kalavedi of Thiruvananthapuram forayed into theatre adaptations of Marthandavarma from 1957. N. Rajan Nair points that a stage performance of Marthandavarma once happened at Kozhikode and performances are happened at Delhi, Bombay and Madras under the respective Malayali associations.[228]

• 2008: Marthanda Varma – A stage adaptation directed by Kaladharan staged on 18 May 2008 at VJT hall, Thiruvananthapuram under the banner of cultural organization, Rasika.[229]
• 2013: Marthanda Varma – A stage adaptation staged on 19 May 2013 17:30 hours at Prof. N. Krishnapillai Foundation Theatre, Nandavanam under the banner of Kalavedi, Thiruvananthapuram.[230]

• 1991–1992: Marthandavarma – A radio play produced by All India Radio, Thiruvananthapuram. The radio play was broadcast in 30 minutes episodes, every Wednesday at 21:30 hours from 17 July 1991 to 1 January 1992, and it was re-broadcast in 15-minute episodes from Monday to Saturday at 14:15 hours between 20 January 2014 and 8 February 2014.[231]
• 2012: Subhadra  – A radio program produced by All India Radio, Thiruvananthapuram. The radio play was broadcast in 30 minutes episodes, every Wednesday at 21:30 hours from 28 November 2012 to 12 December 2012.[232]

The novel was a forerunner in Malayalam historical fiction. According to Kalpetta Balakrishnan, C. R. Velu Pillai's Rājaśēkaran and K. M. Varghese's Nellimūṭṭile Nammuṭe Ammacci and Taccil Māttu Tarakan were influenced by Marthandavarma.[242] Kunjunni Mash said he wrote a novel after reading Marthandavarma at young age, but never published it.[243] For Malayalam writer Paul Zacharia, Marthandavarma gained him the ability to imagine a scene for his writing career.[244]

• Kuñcuttampimāṟ, the historical novel by N. Parameswaran Pilla, is presented as an unauthorized sequel to Marthandavarma.[245]
• Śītālakṣmi, the historical play by E. V. Krishna Pillai, is also considered an unauthorized sequel.[246]

The literary significance of novel led the text of the novel to be used in school curriculum as original and abridged forms, and also been included in the course programs offered by various universities of south India.

• School curriculum – An abridged version of the novel is used as Malayalam II Reader / Malayāḷaṁ Upapāṭhapustakaṁ for Standard IX under Kerala State Education Board during 1977–1986.[247] The chapter 24 of the novel was used as third chapter in Malayalam I Reader / Kēraḷa Pāṭhāvali of Standard X during 1987–2004 under the same education board.[248]
• University curriculum – The novel is prescribed as study material for B.A. programmes in Malayalam offered by Kannur University (2014), Mahatma Gandhi University (1998, 2009), Pondicherry University (2010), University of Kerala (1977, 1991, 1997, 2004–2012). The text of the novel is prescribed for M.A. programmes in Malayalam offered by Madurai Kamaraj University (1998–2008), Mahatma Gandhi University (1991–1992), University of Kerala (1984, 1977–1992, 2007, 2012, 2013) and as a reference book or M.A. programme in Malayalam offered by University of Madras.[249]

Marthandavarma has the highest position among the novels in Malayalam, particularly historical novels.[250] The novel attracts new readers and researchers over the time and remains as the most popular historical novel in Malayalam, thus considered as one among the classics of Malayalam literature.[251] The novel is noted for the excellent narrative combined with chivalric romance and realism respectively thru unexpected adventurous events and the historical facts than in the author's later historical novels, compared to which, the elegant romatntic aspects tied with history makes the legends presented in this novel as believable.[252] The sequels Dharmaraja and Ramarajabahadur could not surpass the reception of Marthandavarma.[253] The novel is also the subject in the marketing of other historical novels. D. C. Books, in one of their advertisements for novel Atijīvanaṁ by Ettumanoor Somadasan, states that there would not be any Malayali who has not read the novel Marthandavarma.[254]