Particles of the Kagoshima dialects

The phenomenon of resyllabification (or particle fusion) is first attested for the Kagoshima dialect in the 18th-century works of Gonza, a Japanese castaway from Satsuma who was taken to Saint Petersburg, Russia around 1733-1734. Under the supervision of assistant librarian Andrei Bogdanov, Gonza helped produce several reference works on the Japanese language in Russian, including an introductory, a grammar and a dictionary.[9] These works provide the oldest glimpse into the Kagoshima dialect.

For the most part, the works of Gonza show that the topic particle は a and the dative particle い i followed the same rules as they do today, fusing with the final syllable of the preceding word and being subject to the same exceptions that exist today. The accusative particle を wo, however, was independent and shows fusion in only a couple recorded examples.[9]

Like standard Japanese, the particle から kara is used to indicate a time or place from which something begins. In this sense, it can generally be translated to "from" in English. Regional variants of this particle include かあ kaa and か ka. In the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki specifically, the form かい kai is used.[14]

今かあ (ima kaa)[5]

ima=kaa

now=ABL

ima=kaa

now=ABL

'From now'

Unlike standard Japanese, this particle is not used to mark a reason. Instead, the Kagoshima particle で de is used for that purpose. For example, in the standard Japanese sentence 町から取ってくるものですから machi kara totte kuru mono desu kara "because it was bought from town",[5] the first instance where から kara is used to mean "from" remains unchanged in Kagoshima, while the second, where it's used to mean "because", is replaced by the particle で de:

町かあ取っくんもんじゃんで (makkaa tokkun mon jan de)[5]

maʔ=kaa

town=ABL

toʔ-ku-n=mon

take-come-NPST=NMZ

ja-n=de

COP=NPST=CNSQ

maʔ=kaa toʔ-ku-n=mon ja-n=de

town=ABL take-come-NPST=NMZ COP=NPST=CNSQ

'Because it was bought from town'

In a few Kagoshima dialects, the particle から kara can be used in two additional ways that are different from standard Japanese.

(1) In the first, it can be used to indicate the means used to arrive to a situation (such as the means of transportation), overlapping with the standard particle で de "by" in this sense. For example:

船から来た (fune kara kita)[15]

fune=kara

boat=ABL

k-ita

come-PST

fune=kara k-ita

boat=ABL come-PST

'(He) came by boat'

バスから行くでえ (basu kara iku dee)[7] (Example from Koshikijima)

basu=kara

bus=ABL

ik-u=dee

go-NPST=CNSQ

basu=kara ik-u=dee

bus=ABL go-NPST=CNSQ

'Since (I) go by bus'

The particle から kara does not replace the other usages of で de "by". For instance, it cannot be used to mark the tool used to achieve an action. So in the sentence "to write with a brush", で de would be used.[7]

(2) In the second, it can be used to mark the agent in an adversative-passive sentence, replacing the standard particle に ni. For example:

犬からえかけらるた (in kara ekakeraruta)[16]

in=kara

dog=ABL

ekake-raru-ta

chase-PAS-PST

in=kara ekake-raru-ta

dog=ABL chase-PAS-PST

'(I) was chased by a dog'

The particle を o is a case particle that marks the direct object in a sentence. Depending on the word that precedes, it can also be pronounced う u.

Like the particles あ a and い i, when を o is added to a word, the final syllable of that word will be subject to resyllabification. For instance, こい koi "this" becomes こよ koyo "this=ACC".

Example:

ほんの読ん (honno yon)

hon=o

book=ACC

yo-n

read-NPST

hon=o yo-n

book=ACC read-NPST

'(I) read a book.'

The particle をば oba or ば ba marks a topicalized direct object. This form historically derives from a contraction of the accusative marker wo and the topic particle ɸa (modern day wa ~ a).[17] In several Western Kyūshū dialects, ba has completely replaced the particle o as the accusative marker. However, the use of the particle ba within the Kagoshima dialects is restricted mainly to the Koshikijima Islands[18] and is not as widespread elsewhere. Considered an archaism in Standard Japanese,[19] the form oba, pronounced uba in Southern Kagoshima, is more frequently used instead.[20] In contrast with the particle o, oba can be described as an emphatic accusative; that is, it places more emphasis on the direct object.

Examples:

みっをば飲んだ (miʔ oba nonda)

miʔ=o=ba

water=ACC=TOP

no-nda

drink-PST

miʔ=o=ba no-nda

water=ACC=TOP drink-PST

'(I) drank water.'

本ば読ん (hon ba yon)

hon=ba

book=ACC.TOP

yo-n

read-NPST

hon=ba yo-n

book=ACC.TOP read-NPST

'(I) read a book.'

The particle よっか yokka[21] or its variant よか yoka[22] is used in place of standard Japanese より yori and, like it, it has two main functions. The first is that it can be used to indicate the origin of something, akin to "from" or "beginning from" in English. The second is that it can be used to make comparisons, roughly translating to "more than" or "rather than". In southern Koshikijima and northern Tanegashima, the variant よいか yoika is used, while in northern Koshikijima, the forms よきゃあ yokyaa and ゆうきゃあ yuukyaa are observed.[23][7] Etymologically, the particle is considered a contraction of より yori and か ka.[24]

何よっか (nai yokka)[24]

nai=yokka

what=COMP

nai=yokka

what=COMP

'More than anything'

花よっか団子 (hana yokka dango)[21]

hana=yokka

flower=COMP

dango

dumpling

hana=yokka dango

flower=COMP dumpling

'Dumplings rather than flowers', 'Substance over form'

あん山は桜島よっかたけが (an yama wa sakurajima yokka take ga)[25]

a-n

that-GEN

yama=wa

mountain=TOP

sakurajima=yokka

sakurajima=COMP

taka=i=ga

tall=ADJ=FP:EPIS

a-n yama=wa sakurajima=yokka taka=i=ga

that-GEN mountain=TOP sakurajima=COMP tall=ADJ=FP:EPIS

'(I believe that) that mountain is taller than Sakurajima'

The particle い i[22] and its variant に ni can be used to mark a location (like "in" or "at" in English), indicate a direction (like "to" or "towards"), mark an indirect object, or mark the agent in a passive sentence. Its usage is very similar to those of the particles に ni "in/at/to" and へ e "to/towards" in standard Japanese.

Like the particles は a and を o, when い i is added to a word, the final syllable of that word will be subject to resyllabification.

おれ貸せ (Ore kase)[26]

ore=i

1=DAT

kas-e

lend-IMP

ore=i kas-e

1=DAT lend-IMP

'Lend it to me'

あそけ行かんか (asoke ikan ka)

asoko=i

over_there=DAT

ik-an=ka

go-NEG=Q

asoko=i ik-an=ka

over_there=DAT go-NEG=Q

"How about we go over there"

The particle いな ina (or いにゃあ inyaa in northern Koshikijima)[7] generally means "for", "in", "to" or "in order to". Etymologically, it is a combination of the particles い i and は a and is cognate with the standard Japanese construction には ni wa.

明日ずいな (ashita zuina)[27]

ashita=zui=ina

tomorrow=until=DAT.TOP

ashita=zui=ina

tomorrow=until=DAT.TOP

"By tomorrow"

こけにゃあすっこめの受かっとい (kokenyaa sukkome no ukattoi)[27] (Example from Koshikijima)

koko=inyaa

here=DAT.TOP

sukkome=no

scalpel_sawtail=NOM

uka-tte=o-i

float-CONJ=PROG-INF

koko=inyaa sukkome=no uka-tte=o-i

here=DAT.TOP scalpel_sawtail=NOM float-CONJ=PROG-INF

"There are Scalpel Sawtail fish floating (in) here"

In Old Japanese, the particles が ga and の no had overlapping functions as genitive and nominative markers, and were ultimately distinguished by their degree of politeness.[17] The Kagoshima dialects, like other Western Kyūshū dialects and Ryukyuan varieties, are notable in that this original distinction is largely maintained, although some regional variation in usage occurs.

In Kagoshima, the particle が ga is considered somewhat more derogatory and occurs mainly with a human subject or possessor.[28]

Examples:

俺が家 (oi ga e)

oi=ga

1=GEN

e

home

oi=ga e

1=GEN home

'My house', 'my family'

俺がてねげ (oi ga tenege)[29]

oi=ga

1=GEN

tenege

handtowel

oi=ga tenege

1=GEN handtowel

'My handtowel'

In contrast with the particle が ga, the particle の no (or ん n) is considered more neutral or polite.[17]

先生のてねげ (sense no tenege)[30]

sense=no

teacher=GEN

tenege

handtowel

sense=no tenege

teacher=GEN handtowel

'The teacher's handtowel'

The particle の no is sometimes reduced to ん n.

机ん中 (tsukuen naka)

tsukue=n

desk=GEN

naka

inside

tsukue=n naka

desk=GEN inside

'inside the desk'

The instrumental particle で de is used to mark the means or tool used to accomplish an action. It can typically be translated to "with", "by" or "using" in English.

筆で書いた (fude de kaita)[7] (Example from Koshikijima)

fude=de

brush=INSTR

ka-ita

write-PST

fude=de ka-ita

brush=INSTR write-PST

'(He) wrote with a brush'

麦で作った (mugi de tsukutta)[7] (Example from Koshikijima)

mugi=de

wheat=INSTR

tsuku-tta

make-PST

mugi=de tsuku-tta

wheat=INSTR make-PST

'It was made with wheat'

From an etymological standpoint, this particle is cognate to the standard Japanese particle で de, broadly meaning "with", "at" or "by". However, it does differ from its standard counterpart in two main ways:

• When indicating the means used to arrive at a situation (similar to the English word "by" in the sentence "he travelled by boat"), most Kagoshima dialects favour the ablative particle から kara instead of で de.
• When marking the location of an action, most Kagoshima dialects favour either the lative particle せえ see "in, at, to" or the dative-locative particle い i "in, at, to, by" instead of で de.

The particle せえ see and its many regional variations (e.g. せ se, さい sai, さえ sae, さん san, さね sane, さめ same, さめえ samee, さみゃあ samyaa)[27][31][32] marks direction. It can roughly be translated as "in" or "to" in English and is comparable in usage to へ e in standard Japanese. Etymologically, the particle is said to originate from the expression 様に sama ni "by way of, in the state of".[33]

東京せえ (tokyo see)[21][5]

tokyo=see

Tokyo=LAT

tokyo=see

Tokyo=LAT

'In/to Tokyo'

指宿せえ、行っきた。 (ibusussee, ikkita.)

ibusuʔ=see

Ibusuki=LAT

iʔ=ki-ta

go=come-PST

ibusuʔ=see iʔ=ki-ta

Ibusuki=LAT go=come-PST

'(I) came back from Ibusuki'

下せえ行た。 (shita see ita.)[5]

shita=see

down=LAT

i-ta

go-PST

shita=see i-ta

down=LAT go-PST

'(I) went down', '(I) went to the bottom'

Other than its standard usages, the particle と is also a nominalizing particle in the Kagoshima dialects. That is, it can be appended to a verb, an adjective or another utterance to transform it into a noun. This usage is similar to how の no is used in standard Japanese.

あたいがと (Atai ga to)[34]

atai=ga=to

1=GEN=NMZ

atai=ga=to

1=GEN=NMZ

'Mine'

こまんかととふとかとと (komanka to to futoka to to)[34]

koman-ka=to=to

small-ADJ=NMZ=COM

futo-ka=to=to

big-ADJ=NMZ=COM

koman-ka=to=to futo-ka=to=to

small-ADJ=NMZ=COM big-ADJ=NMZ=COM

'The small one and the big one'

たけえとが良か (takee to ga yoka)[35] (Example from Onoaida, Yakushima)

taka=i=to=ga

tall=ADJ=NMZ=NOM

yo-ka

good-ADJ

taka=i=to=ga yo-ka

tall=ADJ=NMZ=NOM good-ADJ

'The tall one is good'

The particle と can also be used at the end of declarative sentences to add mild emphasis.

行っとよ (Itto yo)[34]

iʔ=to=yo

go.NPST=EMP=EMP

iʔ=to=yo

go.NPST=EMP=EMP

"I'm going"

The particle た ta or its variant たあ taa is a combination of the nominalizing particle と to and the topic particle は a. It can be combined with a verb or adjective to turn it into a noun, similar to how ものは mono wa and のは no wa work in standard Japanese.[22]

どいけ？一番こまんかた。 (doi ke? ibban komanka ta.)

doi=ke?

which=Q?

iʔ.ban

one.number

koman-ka=to=a.

small-ADJ=NOM=TOP.

doi=ke? iʔ.ban koman-ka=to=a.

which=Q? one.number small-ADJ=NOM=TOP.

'Which one? The smallest one.'

The particle け ke[36] can be used with verbs in their stem form to indicate either the purpose of a movement or the arrival point of a movement. It most often occurs in the construction ～け行っ ~ ke iʔ "to go (do something)". In parts of the Koshikijima islands, the variant きゃあ kyaa is used; in Tanegashima, the variant かあ kaa is used;[36] in parts of the Tokara islands, げえら geera is used;[36] in southern Satsuma, the variant げ ge is used;[36] and amongst older people in the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki, the variant げ ge is observed.[14] In the nearby Kikai language spoken to the south of Kagoshima, three similar particles are reported: かい kai, がち gachi or かち kachi, and かに kani.[11]

見け行った (mi ke itta.)[36]

mi=ke

see=PURP

i-tta

go-PST

mi=ke i-tta

see=PURP go-PST

'(I) went to look'

魚釣りきゃあ行こうい (io tsuri kyaa ikoo i.)[7] (Example from Koshikijima)

io

fish

tsur-i=kyaa

angle-INF=PURP

ik-oo=i

go-HORT=EMP

io tsur-i=kyaa ik-oo=i

fish angle-INF=PURP go-HORT=EMP

"Let's go fishing!"

Note that this particle can only be used with verbs. With nouns, the particle い i is used instead.[37] For example:

しごて行った (shigote itta)[37]

shigoto=i

work=DAT

i-tta

go-PST

shigoto=i i-tta

work=DAT go-PST

'(I) went to work'

The quotative particle と to is used to mark speech or thought that is being directly quoted (e.g. something someone else said) or indirectly quoted (e.g. paraphrasing what someone else said or indicating hearsay). While both this particle and the particle ち chi largely overlap in usage, the particle と to tends to be favoured with verbs of thought such as 思っ omoʔ "to think".

厄介なもんじゃと思っ (yakke na mon ja to omoʔ)[38]

yakke-na

troublesome-ADJ

mon

thing

ja

COP

to

QUOT

omo-ʔ

think-NPST

yakke-na mon ja to omo-ʔ

troublesome-ADJ thing COP QUOT think-NPST

"I think it's quite troublesome"

The quotative particle ち chi is used to mark speech or thought that is being directly quoted (e.g. something someone else said) or indirectly quoted (e.g. paraphrasing what someone else said or indicating hearsay). While both this particle and the particle と to largely overlap in usage, the particle ち chi tends to be favoured with verbs of speech or communication such as ゆ yu "to say" or 聞っ kiʔ "to hear".

『おう一蔵』ち言いやった ("ou izzou" chi iiyatta)[38]

ou

hey

izzou

Izzou

chi

QUOT

i-i-ya-tta

say-INF-POL-PST

ou izzou chi i-i-ya-tta

hey Izzou QUOT say-INF-POL-PST

"'Hey, Ichizou', he said"

When followed by the verb ゆ yu "to say", it tends to fuse, becoming ちゅう chuu or ちゅ chu instead.

なんちゅえば (nan chueba)[22]

nan

what

chu-eba

QUOT.say-COND

nan chu-eba

what QUOT.say-COND

'If (we) were to say something', 'Relatively speaking'

The particle は a or wa is a topic marker. That is, it marks the main thing being talked about in a sentence. Like the particles を o and い i, when は a is added to a word, the final syllable of that word will be subject to resyllabification. For instance, こい koi "this" becomes こや koya "this=TOP" when topicalized.

The particle ばってん batten[22] is a conjunctive particle meaning "but" or "although". It is less commonly used than どん don. In the peripheral islands of Tanegashima, Yakushima and Tokara, the variants ばって batte and ばっちぇ batche are also used alongside ばってん batten.[35]

The particle どん don[22] is a conjunctive particle meaning "but" or "although" and typically follows a declarative verb.

From an etymological standpoint, while the particle どん don is technically cognate with the standard Japanese particle ども domo "even though", it may be more accurate to say that it stems from a reduction of the standard expression けれども keredomo "but" which carries the same meaning. This is supported by the fact that, in neighboring provinces such as Miyazaki (including the Higashimorokata district), the form けんどん kendon is used, which can be further shortened to けん ken (as opposed to どん don like in Kagoshima).[14]

いまいたどん、ずすじゃった。 (ima ita don, zusu jatta.)[25]

ima

now

i-ta=don

go-PST=although

zusu

out

ja-tta.

COP-PST

ima i-ta=don zusu ja-tta.

now go-PST=although out COP-PST

"I just went, but no one was home."

The particle で de (sometimes でえ dee in northern Koshikijima)[7] can be combined with verbs or adjectives to mean "because".[21] It is used in place of the standard Japanese particles から kara or ので node.

きゅはてそかでもう行かん。 (kyu wa tesoka de mō ikan.)

kyu=wa

today=TOP

teso-ka=de

tired-ADJ=CNSQ

mō

anymore

ik-an.

go-NEG

kyu=wa teso-ka=de mō ik-an.

today=TOP tired-ADJ=CNSQ anymore go-NEG

"I won't be going anymore because I'm too tired today."

雨が降っとっで (ame ga futtodde)[39]

ame=ga

rain=NOM

fu-tte=oʔ=de

fall=CONJ=PROG=CNSQ

ame=ga fu-tte=oʔ=de

rain=NOM fall=CONJ=PROG=CNSQ

'Because it is raining'

Coordinating particles (sometimes called connective particles or parallel markers) are particles used to link more than one noun or nominalized phrase together. They generally cover the meanings of "and" and "or".

The conjunctive particle と to serves to coordinate nouns or noun phrases and can be translated to "and" in English. This particle is the same in both pronunciation and usage as standard Japanese.

西郷どんと東郷どん (sego-don to tsugo-don)[25]

sego-don=to

sego-HON=CONJ

tsugo-don

tsugo-HON=CONJ

sego-don=to tsugo-don

sego-HON=CONJ tsugo-HON=CONJ

'Mr. Sego and Mr. Tsugo'

Note that verbs and adjectives are coordinated using verbal suffixes instead of this particle. See Kagoshima verb conjugations: Te form for details.

The conjunctive particle やら yara is used to coordinate nouns and signal that the list is incomplete. In this sense, it can translated to "A, B and C (amongst other things)" or "A, B, C, etc.". The particle is equivalent in usage to the standard Japanese particle や ya.

かんやらすんやらふでやらもろた。 (kan yara sun yara fude yara morota.)[25]

kan=yara

paper=CONJ

sun=yara

ink=CONJ

fude=yara

brush=CONJ

moro-ta

receive-PST

kan=yara sun=yara fude=yara moro-ta

paper=CONJ ink=CONJ brush=CONJ receive-PST

'I received paper, ink and a brush (amongst other things)'

The disjunctive particle か ka serves to coordinate nouns or noun phrases and can be translated to "or" in English. This particle is the same in both pronunciation and usage as standard Japanese.

The particle どま doma[22] typically follows nouns and marks approximation. It can be translated as "roughly", "approximately" , "just about", "around" or "or so" in English. The closest standard Japanese equivalents would be ばかりは bakari wa, ぐらいは gurai wa and などは nado wa.[22][41]

Etymologically, どま doma stems from the word 共 tomo, meaning "together with" in standard Japanese, and the topic particle は (w)a.[41]

五人どま (go nin doma)[22]

go

five

nin

people

doma

roughly

go nin doma

five people roughly

'Roughly five people'

そげんかったくったかんどまいらん。 (sogen kattakutta kan doma iran.)

so=gen

this=like

kattakutta

scribble.PST

kan

paper

doma

roughly

iran.

want.NEG

so=gen kattakutta kan doma iran.

this=like scribble.PST paper roughly want.NEG

'I do not want scribbled paper like this'

The particle of exemplification なんど nando[22] and its variant など nado roughly translates to "for example" or "such as" in English.

The focus particle も mo and its variant ん n marks inclusion or similarity and roughly translates to "also", "too" or "as well" in English.

あー、おいもそがんしてかなー (aa, oi mo sogan shite kanaa)[42] (Example from Koshikijima)

aa

oh

oi=also

1=also

sogan

that_kind_of

shi-te-ka-naa

do-CONJ-AUX:in_advance-NEG

aa oi=also sogan shi-te-ka-naa

oh 1=also that_kind_of do-CONJ-AUX:in_advance-NEG

'Oh, I will also have to do that

The focus particle せか seka[14][43][22] (or さあか saaka in northern Koshikijima)[7] expresses an extreme example and roughly translates to "even", "(if) only" or "as long as" in English. The particle is usually followed by a verb in the conditional form. From a usage perspective, this particle is equivalent to the standard Japanese particle さえ sae "even", to which it is related.

Example from Koshikijima:

車さあか持っとおれば (kuruma saaka mottooreba)[7]

kuruma=saaka

car=even

mo=tte=o=reba

have=CONJ=PROG=COND

kuruma=saaka mo=tte=o=reba

car=even have=CONJ=PROG=COND

'As long as you have a car'

The restrictive particle ばっかい bakkai, roughly translating to "just", is functionally the same as standard Japanese ばかり bakari (colloquially ばっかり bakkari).[44][22]

めにっあめばっかい降っとっど (meniʔ ame bakkai futtoddo)[45]

me-niʔ

every-day

ame=bakkai

rain=just

fu-tte=oʔ=do.

fall-CONJ=PROG=EMP

me-niʔ ame=bakkai fu-tte=oʔ=do.

every-day rain=just fall-CONJ=PROG=EMP

"It's just raining every day"

The restrictive particle ほず hozu[14] is used to show the extent to which the following verb or adjective applies to what precedes. In English, it can be roughly translated with the expressions "to the extent of", "as (much) as" or "so (...) that". This particle is cognate with the standard Japanese particle ほど hodo and is largely limited to the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki.[14] In Kagoshima, the particle しこ shiko is used instead.

The restrictive particle しこ shiko (sometimes pronounced ひこ hiko)[46] is used to show the extent to which the following verb or adjective applies to what precedes. In English, it can be roughly translated with the expressions "to the extent of", "as (much) as" or "so (...) that". The particle しこ shiko is used in place of standard Japanese だけ dake[21] or ほど hodo.[22] Etymologically, しこ shiko may be related to standard Japanese しき shiki, found in compounds like これしき koreshiki "only this much", as well as しか shika "only", which is limited in standard Japanese to negative phrases.

どしこでん (doshiko den)

do=shiko

what=extent

de=n

is=however

do=shiko de=n

what=extent is=however

'As many as one likes'

あったしこ持っけ (atta shiko mokke)

atta=shiko

have.PST=extent

moʔ=ke

bring=come.IMP

atta=shiko moʔ=ke

have.PST=extent bring=come.IMP

'Bring all that you have'

The terminative particle ぎい gii or its variant ぎ gi is used to indicate a time or place as a limit[21][22] and can be translated as "until" or "up to" in English. It is functionally similar to the particle まで made in Japanese.[22]

Etymologically, the particle originated from the noun 切り kiri meaning "end" or "bound" (rendaku form: ぎり giri), possibly by way of shortening the term 限り kagiri "limit, as far as, as much as". The noun 切り kiri also gave way to the standard Japanese particle きり kiri (ぎり giri), meaning "just" or "only".[47] To the south of Kagoshima, similar terminative particles are attested in Northern Ryukyuan varieties, such as がり gari in Kikai[11] and がでぃ gadi in Okinoerabu.[48] However, it is unclear if these are related.

五時ぎ (go ji gi)

go

five

ji=gi

hour=TERM

go ji=gi

five hour=TERM

"Until 5 o'clock"

ハイ、こいぎいよ。 (hai, koi gii yo.)

hai

yes

koi=gii=yo

this=TERM=EMP

hai koi=gii=yo

yes this=TERM=EMP

'Yes, so far'

いっとっ、かごっまぎぃいたっくっで。 (ittoʔ, kagomma gii itakudde.)[49]

ittoʔ,

hold_on

kagomma=gii

kagoshima=TERM

itakuʔ=de

go_and_return=CNSQ

ittoʔ, kagomma=gii itakuʔ=de

hold_on kagoshima=TERM go_and_return=CNSQ

"It's because I'm going to Kagoshima and back"

Just like in standard Japanese, the terminative particle まで made is used to indicate a time or place as a limit and can be translated as "until" or "up to" in English. In the Taira dialect of Koshijijima, the form みゃー myaa is used.[50]

あっちゃみゃー行け。 (atcha myaa ike.)[50] (Example from Koshikijima)

atcha=myaa

over_there=TERM

ik-e

go-IMP

atcha=myaa ik-e

over_there=TERM go-IMP

'Go over there.'

The terminative particle ずい zui (also spelled づい dzui) is used to indicate a time or place as a limit[21][22][51] and can be translated as "to", "until" or "up to" in English. It is functionally equivalent to the particle まで made "to, up to, until", used in both standard Japanese[22] and the local Kagoshima dialects. In the Higashimorokata district of Miyazaki, the form ずり zuri is used,[14] while in the town of Ei, Kagoshima (now Minamikyūshū), the form ぢゅい djui is used.[10]

Etymologically, the particle ずい zui likely originates from the noun 出り "setting out (to)", which was historically pronounced dzuri in Kagoshima and would be cognate with the form 出 de "coming out" in modern standard Japanese. This is evidenced by the fact that the verb 出る "to go out; to exit; to set out" and its nominal form are still pronounced ずい zui or dzui in the traditional Kagoshima dialects.[52] The oldest attestation of this particle is found in the 18th-century works of Gonza under the form ドゥイ dui ~ dwi (possibly pronounced [d͡zui] or [d͡zwi] at the time), as in モスクゥィドゥイ moskwi dui/dwi "up to Moscow".[53]

何時ずい (izzui)[21]

iʔ=zui

when=TERM

iʔ=zui

when=TERM

'Until when?'

何処ずい (doko zui)

doko=zui

where=TERM

doko=zui

where=TERM

'Up to where?', 'How far?'

市来から市比野づい (Ichiki kara Ichihino dzui)[54]

ichiki=kara

ichiki=ABL

ichihino=dzui

ichihino=TERM

ichiki=kara ichihino=dzui

ichiki=ABL ichihino=TERM

'From Ichiki to Ichihino'

In Koshikijima, ずい zui can also be used in the sense of "even" or "so far as":

鯛ずいこおだ (tai zui kooda)[7]

tai=zui

sea_bream=TERM

koo-da

eat-PST

tai=zui koo-da

sea_bream=TERM eat-PST

'(I) even ate sea bream', '(I) went so far as eating sea bream'

The particle あい ai or more rarely わい wai is a sentence-final particle used to bring awareness to something and to indicate that the speaker is expressing their own view. Unlike other sentence-final particles, this particle attaches to the preceding word (typically a verb in its non-past form) and fuses with the vowel of the final syllable of that word. Functionally, this particle is similar in usage to the particle よ yo in standard Japanese. In the Koshikijima islands, the variants あ a and わ wa are used.[6]

Etymologically, the particle is said to originate from the historical pronoun 我 ware "I" and to be cognate with the sentence-ending particles わ wa, わい wai and ばい bai used dialectally throughout Japan.[56]

書付を忘れたあい (kattsuke o wasuretaai)[5]

kattsuke=o

document=ACC

wasure-ta=ai

forget-PST=FP

kattsuke=o wasure-ta=ai

document=ACC forget-PST=FP

"(I) forgot the documents"

危ね車やらい (anne kuima yarai)[5]

anna=i

dangerous=ADJ

kuima

car

ya-ru=ai

COP-NPST=FP

anna=i kuima ya-ru=ai

dangerous=ADJ car COP-NPST=FP

"It's a dangerous car"

そいも良かあいね (soi mo yokaai ne)[5]

soi=mo

that=also

yo-ka=ai=ne

good-ADJ=FP=EMP

soi=mo yo-ka=ai=ne

that=also good-ADJ=FP=EMP

"That is also good"

どら、日が減らんうち戻どいもそ (dora, hi ga heran uchi modoimoso wai. )[56]

dora

whatever

hi=ga

sun=NOM

her-an

decrease-CONJC

uchi=i

home=DAT

modo-i-mos-o=wai

return-INF-POL-VOL=FP

dora hi=ga her-an uchi=i modo-i-mos-o=wai

whatever sun=NOM decrease-CONJC home=DAT return-INF-POL-VOL=FP

"Whatever the case, let's return before the sun goes down"

蹴っとらあ (kettoraa)[6] (Example from Koshikijima)

ke-tte=o-ru=a

kick-SEQ=PROG-NPST=FP

ke-tte=o-ru=a

kick-SEQ=PROG-NPST=FP

"(I am) kicking"

After a verb in its volitional form (also called the presumptive form), the particle is reduced to い i and serves to add insistence to what is being said. Examples from Izumi, Kagoshima include 飲もい nomoi "let's drink", 行こい ikoi "let's go", 見ろい miroi "let's see" and しゅい shui "let's do (it)".[57]

The sentence-final particle ど do, sometimes lengthened to どお・どー doo, is used mark an assertion and to grab the attention of the addressee, if one is present. It is functionally similar to the particles よ yo and ぞ zo in standard Japanese[21] as well as the particle どー doo used in most Ryukyuan languages such as Okinawan.

よかど (yoka do)

yo-ka=do

good-ADJ=FP:DECL

yo-ka=do

good-ADJ=FP:DECL

"It's good!"

かえろど (kaero do)

kae-ro=do

return-VOL=FP:DECL

kae-ro=do

return-VOL=FP:DECL

"I'm going home!"

今日はよか天気じゃっど (kyu wa yoka tenki jaddo)

kyu=wa

today=TOP

yo-ka

good-ADJ

tenki

weather

jaʔ=do

is=FP:DECL

kyu=wa yo-ka tenki jaʔ=do

today=TOP good-ADJ weather is=FP:DECL

'The weather is quite fine today!'

んんまかったどー (nnmakatta doo)[58]

nnma-ka-tta=doo

delicious-ADJ-PST=FP:DECL

nnma-ka-tta=doo

delicious-ADJ-PST=FP:DECL

"It was delicious!"

The sentence-final particle があ gaa or sometimes just が ga is used to mark a statement that the speaker believes to be true. In English, it can be overtly translated as "I believe (that)" or "I think (that)", whereas in standard Japanese, there is no direct equivalent to this particle, so it is often translated with the tag-marker ね ne "eh?" or "right?", with the declarative modal particle よ yo or with the modal auxiliary of probability だろう darou.[59]

やっせんがあ (yassen gaa)

yassen=gaa

hopeless=FP:EPIS

yassen=gaa

hopeless=FP:EPIS

"(I believe that) it's hopeless"

子どまあす_△けおおがあ (kodoma aske oo gaa)[59] (Example from Izumi)

kodomo=a

children=TOP

asko=i

there=DAT

oo=gaa

be=FP:EPIS

kodomo=a asko=i oo=gaa

children=TOP there=DAT be=FP:EPIS

"(I believe that) the children are over there",
"The children should be over there."

一緒に行くが (issho ni iku ga)[60]

issho=ni

together=DAT

i-ku=ga

go-NPST=FP:EPIS

issho=ni i-ku=ga

together=DAT go-NPST=FP:EPIS

"(I believe that) we should go together"

くが (ku ga)

ku=ga

eat.NPST=FP:EPIS

ku=ga

eat.NPST=FP:EPIS

"(I believe that) we should eat"

As a regular noun, もん (物) mon means "thing" and often follows verbs in their nominal form or stem form to create a compound noun. For example, 食い物 kuimon "food" is a compound of 食い kui "eating" and 物 mon "thing".

This word can also be used at the end of a sentence, where it functionally acts like both a nominalizer and a sentence-final particle marking a cheeky comment, sometimes translated as "you know" in English. When used as such, it is always written in kana as もん mon. In regards to its usage, the particle もん mon typically follows adjectives and verbs directly and is often also followed by the copula じゃ ja "is".

おやっがへはまこてくせもんじゃ (oyagga hewa makote kuse mon ja)[61]

oyaʔ=ga

father=GEN

he=wa

fart=TOP

makoto=i

truly=DAT

kusa=i=mon

smell=ADJ=FP:NMZ:you_know

ja

COP

oyaʔ=ga he=wa makoto=i kusa=i=mon ja

father=GEN fart=TOP truly=DAT smell=ADJ=FP:NMZ:you_know COP

"My dad's farts are truly smelly!"

まこてやぜろしもんじゃ！ (makote yazeroshi mon ja!)[62]

makoto=i

truly=DAT

yazeroshi=i=mon

annoy=ADJ=FP:NMZ:you_know

ja

COP

makoto=i yazeroshi=i=mon ja

truly=DAT annoy=ADJ=FP:NMZ:you_know COP

"You're so annoying you know!"

The compound particle もんか mon ka (pronounced むんか mun ka in the southern Satsuma Peninsula)[63] typically follows a declarative verb and serves to both nominalize the phrase and to repudiate or dismiss the idea brought forth. In this sense, it can be overtly translated as "as if (I would)" or "there's no way (I could)". It can also simply be translated in English with negation, e.g. "(I) will not".

Functionally, this compound particle is the same as standard Japanese もんか mon ka, and ultimately derives from a combination of the sentence-final particle もん mon and the question particle か ka.

がっつい食がないむんか (gattsui ku ga nai mun ka)[63] (Example from Minamikyūshū)

gattsu=i

really=DAT

ku-u=ga

eat-NPST=NOM

na-i=munka

be_able-NPST=FP:NMZ:as_if

gattsu=i ku-u=ga na-i=munka

really=DAT eat-NPST=NOM be_able-NPST=FP:NMZ:as_if

"As if I could really eat them!", "There's no way I would truly be able to eat them!"

The sentence-final particles なあ / なー / な na(a), ねえ / ねー / ね ne(e) and にい / にー nii (used chiefly in Minamikyūshū)[64] are used to indicate or solicit acknowledgement, agreement or confirmation regarding non-controversial information. In English, these particles are typically translated using tag question markers such as "eh?", "right?", "isn't it?" or "aren't you?" because of their use in utterances where the speaker is looking for agreement or confirmation from the listener. That said, they also play a role in narration where they help indicate that the statement uttered is incomplete and is the basis for what will be said next, and that the speaker may or may not be seeking acknowledgement from the listener (through backchannel responses).

Etymologically, these particles are all cognate with the standard Japanese particle ね ne and its variant な na, common in most Western Japanese dialects.

んんまかったどねえ (nnmakatta do nee)[58]

nnma-ka-tta=do=nee

delicious-ADJ-PST=FP:DECL=Q

nnma-ka-tta=do=nee

delicious-ADJ-PST=FP:DECL=Q

"It was delicious, don't you agree?"

いっがにー (igga nii)[64] (Example from around Minamikyūshū)

i-ʔ=ga=nii

go-NPST=FP:EPIS=Q

i-ʔ=ga=nii

go-NPST=FP:EPIS=Q

'We should go, right?'

じゃらいにー (jarai nii)[25] (Example from around Minamikyūshū)

ja-ru=ai=nii

COP-NPST=EMP=Q

ja-ru=ai=nii

COP-NPST=EMP=Q

"Right?", "It is, isn't it?"

A study on sentence-final particles in the Sato dialect of Koshikijima found that, while な(ー) na(a) and ね(ー) ne(e) mostly overlapped in usage, speakers felt that the particle ne(e) was not native to their dialect and was instead an artifact of standard Japanese.[42] The same study confirmed that the usage of ne(e) was very similar to that of the particle ne in standard Japanese and that some minor differences with the native particle na(a) existed. One such difference is that ne(e) tends to only be used when speakers mix in standard Japanese grammar.[42] Another is that it is not used when talking to oneself (e.g. it would not be used when thinking to oneself "*that flower is so pretty"), whereas the native particle na(a) can be.[42]

The particle お o or おー oo (sometimes written を and をー respectively) is a sentence-final particle used to stress the utterance. It tends to follow declarative or imperative statements and is similar in usage to the particles よ yo and わ wa in standard Japanese.

Etymologically, it is likely that this particle is a holdover from Old and Middle Japanese and that it has the same origins as the accusative case particle を o, which is used to mark the direct object in a sentence. In Old Japanese, the particle を started as an exclamatory particle expressing consent and response and was sometimes used in sentence-final position as an interjectional particle used to mark admiration in a declarative phrase or to add strength to an imperative phrase.[65]

早よ行っきゃいおー (hayo ikkyai oo)[66] (Example from the Eastern Satsuma Peninsula)

haya=u

fast=ADV

i-ki=ya-i

go-INF=do.aux.POL-IMP

oo

EMP

haya=u i-ki=ya-i oo

fast=ADV go-INF=do.aux.POL-IMP EMP

'Please go quickly'

良か天気ぢゃなお (yoka tenki ja na o)[66] (Example from Yakushima)

yo-ka

good-ADJ

tenki

weather

ja

COP

na

EMP

o

EMP

yo-ka tenki ja na o

good-ADJ weather COP EMP EMP

'The weather is quite nice'

飲んみゃんせお (nonmyanse o)[67]

no-mi=ya-n-se

drink-INF=do.aux.POL-HON-IMP

o

EMP

no-mi=ya-n-se o

drink-INF=do.aux.POL-HON-IMP EMP

'Please drink'

In Tanegashima, this particle fuses with the preceding word. For example, the phrase 良かお yoka o "it's good" would become 良こー yokoo.[66]

The sentence-final particle よー yoo or sometimes just よ yo is used mark an assertion and to grab the attention of the addressee, if one is present. Etymologically, it is cognate with the standard Japanese particle よ yo.

A study on sentence-final particles in the Sato dialect of Koshikijima found that, while よ(ー) yo(o) and ど(ー) do(o) mostly overlapped in usage, speakers felt that the particle yo(o) was not native to their dialect and was instead an artifact of standard Japanese.[42] The study, however, was not able to validate this claim as speakers did not tend to mix in standard Japanese grammar when the particle was used (unlike the particle ね(ー) ne(e)). The study only found one salient difference between the two particles which was that speakers did not use yo(o) when speaking or thinking to themselves, preferring do(o) instead.[42]

Like standard Japanese, the sentence-final particle か ka (pronounced が ga in Makurazaki city) is used to mark a question at the end of a phrase. Compared to the question particles け ke and な na, the particle か ka is neutral and can be used with anyone regardless of age.

何月か？ (nan gakka?)[68]

nan

what

gaʔ=ka

month=Q

nan gaʔ=ka

what month=Q

'What month?'

どやったろが？ (do yattaro ga?)[68]

do

how

ya-tta-ro=ga

COP-PST-INFER=Q

do ya-tta-ro=ga

how COP-PST-INFER=Q

'How was it?'

The sentence-final particle け ke or sometimes けえ kee (pronounced げ ge and げえ gee in Makurazaki city) is used to mark a question at the end of a phrase. While this particle is functionally equivalent to the question particle か ka, it is more specifically used when talking to someone who is younger.[68]

どいけ？一番こまんかた。 (doi ke? ibban komanka ta.)

doi=ke?

which=Q?

iʔ-ban

one-number

koman-ka=to=a.

small-ADJ=NMZ=TOP.

doi=ke? iʔ-ban koman-ka=to=a.

which=Q? one-number small-ADJ=NMZ=TOP.

'Which one? The smallest one.'

明日休みけえ？ (ashita yasumi kee?)[60]

ashita

tomorrow

yasumi=kee?

holiday=Q?

ashita yasumi=kee?

tomorrow holiday=Q?

'Is tomorrow a holiday?'

戻っ来たげ？ (modokkita ge?)[68] (Example from around Makurazaki city)

modo-ʔ=ki-ta=ge?

return-SEQ=come-PST=Q

modo-ʔ=ki-ta=ge?

return-SEQ=come-PST=Q

'Have (they) come back?'

The sentence-final particle な na is used to mark a question at the end of a phrase. While this particle is functionally equivalent to the question particle か ka, it is more specifically used when talking to someone who is older.[68]

戻って来たもんぢゃながどな？ (modotte kita mon janaga do na)[68] (Example from around Makurazaki city)

modo-tte

return-SEQ

ki-ta=mon

come-PST=NMLZ

ja-naga=do=na

COP-NEG=EMP=Q

modo-tte ki-ta=mon ja-naga=do=na

return-SEQ come-PST=NMLZ COP-NEG=EMP=Q

'Is it not the case that the person came back?'