Racism in North America

Contemporary Canada is the product of indigenous First Nations combined with multiple waves of immigration, predominantly from Asia and Europe. Racism in Canada has manifested itself against the First Nations, Chinese, Jews, and Japanese, and included Aboriginal and Black slavery.

Racism in Mexico has a long history.[1] Historically, Mexicans that were more genetically Spanish, and thus lighter skin tones, had absolute control over dark-skinned Indigenous people. This is evidenced in the Spanish colonial Casta system. Generally, White Mexicans have made up the majority of Mexico's upper class and as such, many White Mexicans feel a sense of superiority over the Amerindian population who tend to be predominantly of low income. In Mexico, people who are darker-skinned or of indigenous descent make up the majority of the working classes, while lighter-skinned Mexicans of Spanish descent typically make up the majority of the upper class. However, there are notable exceptions as most of the poor in the rural north of Mexico are White, whilst in Southern Mexico – particularly in the states of Yucatán and Chiapas – Amerindians and Mestizos make up a large part of the upper class.[2]

The island nation of Trinidad and Tobago is a place of tension between Afro-Caribbeans and Indo-Caribbeans.[3] Around 39% of Trinidadians are of African descent, 40% are of Indian descent and a small population is of European descent. Africans usually live in urban areas, notably the East-West corridor, while Indians usually live in the rural areas surrounding the sugar cane plantations.

Racism in the United States has been a major issue ever since the era of colonialism and slavery. Legally sanctioned racism imposed a heavy burden on Native Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, Americans from lesser developed parts of Europe, and Asian Americans. European Americans were privileged by law in matters of literacy, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure over periods of time which extended from the 17th century to the 1960s. However, numerous European ethnic groups, including Jews, Irish, Southern European and Eastern European Americans, as well as immigrants from elsewhere, suffered xenophobic exclusion and other forms of racism in American society.

Major racially structured institutions included slavery, Indian Wars, Native American reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps (for Japanese-Americans). Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century and came to be perceived as socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well, yet racial politics remain a major phenomenon. Historical racism continues to be reflected in socio-economic inequality. Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, and government.

As in most countries, many people in the U.S. continue to have some prejudices against other races. In the view of a network of scores of US civil rights and human rights organizations, "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and extends to all communities of color." Discrimination against African Americans and Latin Americans is widely acknowledged. Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority have perceived discrimination in their dealings with other minority racial and religious groups.

Legal scholar Charles Lawrence, speaking about the American political elite said their "cultural belief system has influenced all of us; we are all racists".[4] Philosopher Cornel West has stated that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life."[5]

Since Puerto Rico is a territory rather than state, the island is only entitled to certain "fundamental" constitutional protections, which is a source to their differential treatment.[6] Holding the status as an incorporated territory, they are limited to certain rights, unable to vote and limited from certain federal entitlements and welfare programs under the 14th Amendment.[6] Furthermore they hold zero representation under all forms of government, which proposes the application of heightened judicial view under the equal protection doctrine.[6] The Supreme Court holds that Congress may treat Puerto Rico unequally as long as on a rational basis for actions.[6] Federal courts have relied on this upholding and Puerto Rico's unincorporated territorial status and the resulting systematic inequality to deny plaintiff's equal protection lawsuits.[6]

• Racism in South America