Soundscape

The origin of the term soundscape is somewhat ambiguous. It is often miscredited as having been coined by Canadian composer and naturalist, R. Murray Schafer, who indeed led much of the groundbreaking work on the subject from the 1960s and onwards. According to an interview with Schafer published in 2013 [9] Schafer himself attributes the term to city planner Michael Southworth. Southworth, a former student of Kevin Lynch, led a project in Boston in the 1960s, and reported the findings in a paper entitled "The Sonic Environment of Cities," in 1969,[1] where the term is used. To complicate matters, however, a search in Google NGram reveals that soundscape had been used in other publications prior to this. More research is needed to establish the historical background in detail.

Around the same time as Southworth's project in Boston, Schafer initiated the now famous World Soundscape project together with colleagues like Barry Truax and Hildegard Westerkamp. Schafer subsequently collected the findings from the world soundscape project and fleshed out the soundscape concept in more detail in his seminal work about the sound environment, "Tuning of the World." [10] Schafer has also used the concept in music education.[11]

In music, soundscape compositions are often a form of electronic music, or electroacoustic music. Composers who use soundscapes include real-time granular synthesis pioneer Barry Truax, Hildegard Westerkamp, and Luc Ferrari, whose Presque rien, numéro 1 (1970) is an early soundscape composition.[7][12] Soundscape composer Petri Kuljuntausta has created soundscape compositions from the sounds of sky dome and Aurora Borealis and deep sea underwater recordings, and a work entitled "Charm of Sound" to be performed at the extreme environment of Saturn's moon Titan. The work landed on the ground of Titan in 2005 after traveling inside the spacecraft Huygens over seven years and four billion kilometres through space.

Irv Teibel's Environments series (1969–79) consisted of 30-minute, uninterrupted environmental soundscapes and synthesized or processed versions of natural sound.[13]

Music soundscapes can also be generated by automated software methods, such as the experimental TAPESTREA application, a framework for sound design and soundscape composition, and others.[14][15]

The soundscape is often the subject of mimicry in Timbre-centered music such as Tuvan throat singing. The process of Timbral Listening is used to interpret the timbre of the soundscape. This timbre is mimicked and reproduced using the voice or rich harmonic producing instruments.[16]

In Schafer's analysis, there are two distinct soundscapes, either "hi-fi" or "lo-fi", created by the environment. A hi-fi system possesses a positive signal-to-noise ratio.[17] These settings make it possible for discrete sounds to be heard clearly since there is no background noise to obstruct even the smallest disturbance. A rural landscape offers more hi-fi frequencies than a city because the natural landscape creates an opportunity to hear incidences from nearby and afar. In a lo-fi soundscape, signals are obscured by too many sounds, and perspective is lost within the broad-band of noises.[17] In lo-fi soundscapes everything is very close and compact. A person can only listen to immediate encounters; in most cases even ordinary sounds have to be exuberantly amplified in order to be heard.

All sounds are unique in nature. They occur at one time in one place and can't be replicated. In fact, it is physically impossible for nature to reproduce any phoneme twice in exactly the same manner.[17]

According to Schafer there are three main elements of the soundscape:

• Keynote sounds

This is a musical term that identifies the key of a piece, not always audible ... the key might stray from the original, but it will return. The keynote sounds may not always be heard consciously, but they "outline the character of the people living there" (Schafer). They are created by nature (geography and climate): wind, water, forests, plains, birds, insects, animals. In many urban areas, traffic has become the keynote sound.

• Sound signals

These are foreground sounds, which are listened to consciously; examples would be warning devices, bells, whistles, horns, sirens, etc.

• Soundmark

This is derived from the term landmark. A soundmark is a sound which is unique to an area. In his 1977 book, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World, Schafer wrote, "Once a Soundmark has been identified, it deserves to be protected, for soundmarks make the acoustic life of a community unique."[18]

The elements have been further defined as to essential sources:

Bernie Krause, naturalist and soundscape ecologist, redefined the sources of sound in terms of their three main components: geophony, biophony, and anthropophony.[19][20][21]

• Geophony

Consisting of the prefix, geo (gr. earth), and phon (gr. sound), this refers to the soundscape sources that are generated by non-biological natural sources such as wind in the trees, water in a stream or waves at the ocean, and earth movement, the first sounds heard on earth by any sound-sentient organism.

• Biophony

Consisting of the prefix, bio (gr. life) and the suffix for sound, this term refers to all of the non-human, non-domestic biological soundscape sources of sound.

• Anthropophony

Consisting of the prefix, anthro (gr. human), this term refers to all of the sound signatures generated by humans.

Research has traditionally focused mostly on the negative effects of sound on human beings, as in exposure to environmental noise. Noise has been shown to correlate with health-related problems like stress, reduced sleep and cardiovascular disease.[22] More recently however, it has also been shown that some sounds, like sounds of nature and music, can have positive effects on health.[23][24][25][26][27] While the negative effects of sound has been widely acknowledged by organizations like EU (END 2002/49) and WHO (Burden of noise disease), the positive effects have as yet received less attention. The positive effects of nature sounds can be acknowledged in everyday planning of urban and rural environments, as well as in specific health treatment situations, like nature-based sound therapy[25] and nature-based rehabilitation.[27]

Soundscapes from a computerized acoustic device with a camera may also offer synthetic vision to the blind, utilizing human echolocation, as is the goal of the seeing with sound project.[28]

Papers on noise pollution are increasingly taking a holistic, soundscape approach to noise control. Whereas acoustics tends to rely on lab measurements and individual acoustic characteristics of cars and so on, soundscape takes a top-down approach. Drawing on John Cage's ideas of the whole world as composition,[29] soundscape researchers investigate people's attitudes to soundscapes as a whole rather than individual aspects – and look at how the entire environment can be changed to be more pleasing to the ear. A typical application of this is the use of masking strategies, as in the use of water features to cover unwanted white noise from traffic. It has been shown that masking can work in some cases, but that the successful outcome is dependent on several factors, like sound pressure levels, orientation of the sources, and character of the water sound.[30][31]

Research has shown that variation is an important factor to consider, as a varied soundscape give people the possibility to seek out their favorite environment depending on preference, mood and other factors.[30] One way to ensure variation is to work with"quiet areas" in urban situations. It has been suggested that people's opportunity to access quiet, natural places in urban areas can be enhanced by improving the ecological quality of urban green spaces through targeted planning and design and that in turn has psychological benefits.[32] Soundscaping as a method to reducing noise pollution incorporates natural elements rather than just man made elements.[33] Soundscapes can be designed by urban planners and landscape architects. By incorporating knowledge of soundscapes in their work, certain sounds can be enhanced, while others can be reduced or controlled.[34] It has been argued that there are three main ways in which soundscapes can be designed: localization of functions, reduction of unwanted sounds and introduction of wanted sounds.,[30] each of which should be considered to ensure a comprehensive approach to soundscape design.

The National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division[35] actively protects the soundscapes and acoustic environments in national parks across the country. It is important to distinguish and define certain key terms as used by the National Park Service. Acoustic resources are physical sound sources, including both natural sounds (wind, water, wildlife, vegetation) and cultural and historic sounds (battle reenactments, tribal ceremonies, quiet reverence). The acoustic environment is the combination of all the acoustic resources within a given area – natural sounds and human-caused sounds – as modified by the environment. The acoustic environment includes sound vibrations made by geological processes, biological activity, and even sounds that are inaudible to most humans, such as bat echolocation calls. Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived and comprehended by the humans. The character and quality of the soundscape influence human perceptions of an area, providing a sense of place that differentiates it from other regions. Noise refers to sound which is unwanted, either because of its effects on humans and wildlife, or its interference with the perception or detection of other sounds. Cultural soundscapes include opportunities for appropriate transmission of cultural and historic sounds that are fundamental components of the purposes and values for which the parks were established.

• Sounds recorded in national parks[36]
• Yellowstone National Park Sound Library[37]

• 1969 The New Soundscape - R. Murray Schafer
• 1974 Soundscape studies: An introduction to the World Soundscape Project. Truax, B. Numus-West, 5, pp. 36–39.
• 1977 The Tuning of the World - R. Murray Schafer (ISBN 0-394-40966-3)

  These 2 works were adapted to become part of the 1993 book, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World - R. Murray Schafer (ISBN 0-89281-455-1) 1977 Five village soundscapes (Music of the environment series) - A.R.C. Publications (ISBN 0-88985-005-4)

• 1978 Handbook for Acoustic Ecology - Barry Truax (ISBN 0-88985-011-9)
• 1985 Acoustic Communication : Second Edition - Barry Truax & World Soundscape Project (ISBN 1-56750-537-6
• 1994 Soundscapes: Essays on Vroom and Moo, Eds: Jarviluoma, Helmi - Department of Folk Tradition
• 2002/2016 Wild Soundscapes: Discovering the Voice of the Natural World - Bernie Krause (Yale University Press, ISBN 0300218192) - book & QR link to audio
• 2002 Linking Soundscape Composition and Acoustic Ecology - Hildegard Westerkamp:
• 2003 Site Soundscapes: Landscape architecture in the light of sound - Sonotope Design Strategies, Per Hedfors (Diss.: ISSN 1401-6249 ISBN 91-576-6425-0 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Diss. summary: ISBN 978-3-639-09413-8
• 2004　"Voicescapes: The (en)chanting voice & its performance soundscapes" in Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology Vol.5 No.2 - Henry Johnson 26-29 ISSN 1607-3304
• 2004 The Auditory Culture Reader (Sensory Formations) - Michael Bull (ISBN 1-85973-618-1)
• 2005　"Acoustic Ecology Considered as a Connotation: Semiotic, Post-Colonial and Educational Views of Soundscape" in Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology Vol.6 No.2 - Tadahiko Imada 13-17 (ISSN 1607-3304)
• 2006 Qualitative Judgements of Urban Soundscapes: Questionning Questionnaires and Semantic Scales - Raimbault, Manon, Acta Acustica united with Acustica 92(6), 929–937
• "Soundscapes / Paesaggi sonori". Lo Squaderno (10). December 2008. ISSN 1973-9141. Archived from the original on 2009-07-26. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
• 2006, "Gebiete, Schichten und Klanglandschaften in den Alpen. Zum Gebrauch einiger historischer Begriffe aus der Musikethnologie", Marcello Sorce Keller, in T. Nussbaumer (ed.), Volksmusik in den Alpen: Interkulturelle Horizonte und Crossovers, Salzburg, Verlag Mueller-Speiser, 2006, pp. 9–18.
• 2006 The West Meets the East in Acoustic Ecology (Tadahiko Imada Kozo Hiramatsu et al. Eds), Japanese Association for Sound Ecology & Hirosaki University International Music Centre ISBN 4-9903332-1-7
• 2008 "Soundscape, postcolonial and music education: Experiencing the earliest grain of the body and music" - Tadahiko Imada in Music Education Policy and Implementation: International Perspectives (Chi Cheung Leung, Lai Chi Rita Yip and Tadahiko Imada Eds, Hirosaki University Press) ISBN 978-4-902774-39-9
• 2009 A Little Sound Education - R. Murray Schafer & Tadahiko Imada (Shunjusha, Tokyo) ISBN 978-4-393-93539-2
• 2012 The Great Animal Orchestra: Finding the Origins of Music in the World's Wild Places, Bernie Krause, Little Brown New York, ISBN 978-0-316-08687-5
• 2015 Voices of the Wild: Animal Songs, Human Din, and the Call to Save Natural Soundscapes - Bernie Krause (Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-20631-9) - book & links to audio examples
• 2016 Acoustic Competence: Investigating sonic empowerment in urban cultures. Berlin / Johannesburg - Felix Urban (Marburg: Tectum Verlag) ISBN 978-3-8288-3683-9
• 2016 Soundscape and the Built Environment. Kang, J. & Schulte-Fortkamp, B. (eds.) (2016). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
• 2016 Chatty maps: constructing sound maps of urban areas from social media data. Luca Maria Aiello, Rossano Schifanella, Daniele Quercia, Francesco Aletta (2016). Royal Society Open Science.
• 2017 Sound in Landscape Architecture: A Soundscape Approach to Noise. Cerwén, G. Alnarp: SLU ISBN 978-91-7760-073-2

• World Forum for Acoustic Ecology (WFAE)
• Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology, published by WFAE
• How Sound Affects Us (8:18)—TED talk by Julian Treasure
• Napolisoundscape Urban Space Research Web archive of the audio mapping of the city of Naples
• SonorCities:Learning Culture through City Soundscapes – An Educational Tool