Vulgar Latin vocabulary
This article examines aspects of the vocabulary of Vulgar Latin, an array of sociolects of spoken Latin that developed into all the various Romance languages. Alongside vocabulary attested in Standard Latin, the distinctive vocabulary of Vulgar Latin came from several sources. Some of it came through contact with substrate or abstrate languages spoken by peoples either conquered by, trading with or invading the Roman Empire, many of whom came to speak forms of Latin. Other items came from innovation in the form of grammaticalized and productive lexical and morphological processes, as well as semantic shifts.
Historical overview
St. Jerome, whose commentaries on the Bible are a source of Vulgar Latin. Painting by Peter Paul Rubens.
Like all languages, Latin possessed numerous synonyms that were associated with different speech registers. Some of these words were in the everyday language from the time of Old Latin, while others were borrowed late into Latin from other languages: Germanic, Gaulish, the Paleo-Balkan languages preceding Eastern Romance, etc. Certain words customarily used in Classical Latin fell out of general use in Vulgar Latin, such as equus, "horse". Instead, speakers of Vulgar Latin typically used caballus "nag", though in some areas feminine equa continued to be used, resulting in Romanian iapă, Sardinian èbba, Spanish yegua, Catalan euga and Portuguese égua all meaning the same as Italian cavalla "mare".
The differences applied even to the basic grammatical particles. Many classical particles have no reflex in Romance, such as an, at, autem, dōnec, enim, ergō, etiam, haud, igitur, ita, nam, postquam, quidem, quīn, quod, quoque, sed, utrum and vel.[1] Verbs with prefixed prepositions frequently displaced simple forms. The number of words formed by such productive suffixes as -bilis, -ārius, -itāre and -icāre grew rapidly.
Some Romance languages preserve Latin words that were lost in most others. For example, Italian ogni ("each/every") and Sardinian ondzi continue Latin omnes. Elsewhere the gap is filled by reflexes of Greek κατά or evolved forms of tōtus (originally "entire") for a similar meaning; Occitan/Portuguese/Spanish cada 'each, every', tudo/todo in Portuguese, todo in Spanish, tot in Catalan, tout in French and tot in Romanian. Preservation of the traditional form does not necessarily imply rejection of the innovation, however. The plural tutti in Italian means "all, every", can overlap in meaning with ogni (ogni giorno and tutti i giorni both mean "every day"), and the singular tutto still means "entire" as well as "all".
It is not uncommon for a Classical Latin word to appear in a Romance language alongside the equivalent Vulgar Latin innovation. Classical caput, "head", and colloquial testa (originally "pot") co-exist variously in Italian, French and Catalan. In Romanian cap means 'head' in the anatomical sense, but țeastă means skull or carapace,[2] while țest means "pot" or "lid".[3] Some southern Italian dialects preserve capo as the normal word for "head", and both capo and testa are available in Standard Italian for "head (anatomical)", with capo also serving for figurative senses such as head of an organization. This reflects developments that have gone further in French, in which tête is "head (anatomical)" and chef, the normal phonological outcome of caput, is almost solely limited to meaning "boss", as in usages such as chef d'équipe "team leader", giving rise to chef alone as "head cook" (Chef de cuisine). Spanish and Portuguese have cabeza/cabeça, derived from *capetia, a modified form of caput, but in Portuguese testa is the word for "forehead".
Frequently, words borrowed directly from literary Latin at some later date, rather than evolved within Vulgar Latin, are found side by side with the evolved form. The (lack of) expected phonological developments is a clue that one word has been borrowed. For example, Vulgar Latin fungus, "fungus, mushroom", which became Italian fungo, Catalan fong, and Portuguese fungo, became hongo in Spanish, showing the f > h shift that was common in early Spanish (cf. fīlius > Spanish hijo, "son", facere > Spanish hacer, "to do"). But Spanish also had fungo, which by its lack of the expected sound shifts of /f/ and /u/ shows that it was borrowed directly from Latin.[1]
Vulgar Latin contained a large number of words of foreign origin not present in literary texts. Many works on medicine were written and distributed in Greek, and words were often borrowed from these sources. For example, gamba ( 'knee joint' ), originally a veterinary term only, replaced the classical Latin word for leg (crus) in most Romance languages. (cf. Fr. jambe, It. gamba). Cooking terms were also often borrowed from Greek sources; a calque based on a Greek term was ficatum (iecur) (goose's liver fattened with figs, see foie gras for more information), with the participle ficatum becoming the common word for liver in Vulgar Latin (cf. Sp. hígado, Fr. foie, It. fegato, Pt fígado, Romanian ficat). Important religious terms were also drawn from religious texts written in Greek, such as episcopus (bishop), presbyter (priest), martyr etc.
Selected list of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin words
| English meaning | Latin form | Ancient instances | Modern Romance inherited forms |
|---|---|---|---|
| "all" | omnis (the whole number, the entire) | Both | Italian/Friulian ogni, Sardinian (d)onzi |
| tōtus (the whole, not the part) | Both | French tout, Romansh tut, Friulian dut, Italian tutto, Sardinian tottu, Occitan/Catalan/Romanian tot, Aromanian tut, Spanish todo, Portuguese tudo/todo | |
| "altar" | āra | Classical | Italian ara, Portuguese ara, Galician ara |
| altārium (diminutive) | Vulgar, St. Jerome | Italian altare, French autel, Portuguese/Galician/Spanish/Romanian/Catalan altar, but Galician/Portuguese outeiro 'hill, high place'. | |
| "ask" | rogāre (beg, demand) | Both | Italian rogare, Old French rover, Occitan/Spanish/Portuguese rogar, Romanian ruga |
| interrogāre (interrogate) | Both | Italian interrogare, Old French enterver, Occitan antervar, Asturian entrugar, Romanian întreba, Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan interrogar, French interroger | |
| quaerere (seek) | Both | Italian chiedere, Occitan querre, Romanian cere, but French quérir "to fetch" and Spanish/Portuguese querer "to want" | |
| dēmandāre (put in the charge of) | Both | French demander, Italian domandare, Friulian domandâ, Catalan demanar, Spanish/Portuguese demandar, Aromanian dimãndu, dimãndare, (Romanian dimânda probably a later creation) | |
| inquirere> inquaerere | Classical> Vulgar | Old French/Occitan enquerre, French enquérir (enquête), Portuguese inquirir | |
| "back" (anatomy) |
tergum | Italian terga, Portuguese tergo | |
| dossum (dorsum) | - | French/Occitan/Catalan/Romanian dos, Romansh dies, Friulian duès, Italian dosso or dorso, Portuguese/Spanish dorso, in Classical Latin normally "the horizontal back of an animal" | |
| spathae | - | Italian spada, Spanish espada, espalda, Romanian spate, French épaule “shoulder” | |
| "beak" | rōstrum | Italian rostro, Spanish rostro"face", Portuguese rosto "face", Catalan rostre "face", Romanian rost "mouth" (archaic), now with the more abstract sense of "scope, purpose" | |
| beccus (Gaulish) | Reichenau glosses | Italian becco, French bec, Catalan bec, Spanish pico, Portuguese bico | |
| "beautiful" | pulcher | Portuguese/Spanish pulcro, Italian pulcro | |
| fōrmōsus | Spanish hermoso, Galician fermoso, Italian/Portuguese formoso, Calabrian fumusu, Occitan formos, Romanian frumos "shapely; having a nice figure". | ||
| bellus (diminutive of bonus) | Italian/Spanish bello, Portuguese belo, French beau. | ||
| "begin" | conārī | Friulian čugnâsi "to begin to move, stir" | |
| incipere | Romanian începe, Romansh entschaiver, Spanish empezar | ||
| *cominitiāre | Portuguese começar, Italian cominciare, French commencer, Romansh cumanzer, Friulian comenčâ, Spanish comenzar, from cum + initiāre "initiate" | ||
| "big" | magnus | Sicilian magnu, Sardinian mannu, Portuguese/Spanish tamanho/tamaño, Romanian mare | |
| grandis | French grand, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese grande, Catalan gran | ||
| "bird" | avis | Spanish/Portuguese ave, Catalan au, Pugliese avs | |
| avicellus (diminutive) | Italian uccello, French oiseau, Romansh utschè, Friulian ucel, Catalan ocell, Portuguese auzelo, Neapolitan auciello | ||
| passer | Spanish pájaro, Portuguese/Neapolitan pássaro, Romanian pasăre, originally "sparrow" (so Italian passero, French passereaux, Friulian pàssare, Romansh pasler, Occitan paser, Catalan pàssera) | ||
| "blond/blonde" | *blundus/blunda (Germanic *blundaz) | O.Fr. blont, from M.L. adj. blundus, from Frank. *blund. | French blond/e, Italian biondo/bionda, Portuguese blondícomo/a, flavícomo/a (Romanian blond/blondă is a modern loan) |
| laurus/laura (laurel color, bay leaf hair person) | Galician louro, loura, Portuguese louro/loiro, loura/loira, laurícomo/laurícoma, Romanian laur (as noun, meaning "laurel" or "jimsonweed") | ||
| "blow" | flāre | - | |
| sufflāre | French souffler, Romansh suflar, Italian soffiare, Romanian sufla, Aromanian suflu, suflare, Occitan soflar, Spanish soplar, Portuguese soprar | ||
| "book" | librum | Spanish libro, Italian libro, French livre, Aromanian libru ("Chronicle"), Sardinian libru, Catalan llibre, Portuguese livro | |
| charta (original "papyrus") | Italian carta, Romanian carte, Aromanian carti | ||
| cōdex | Romansch:Sur./Grisch. cudesch, Romansch:Friul.Vall. codesch | ||
| "boy" | puer | - | |
| ninnus (hypocoristic) | Spanish niño, Portuguese nini, nenê, nenén, ninar (to rock and to lull to sleep), Catalan nen, Galician neno, Sicilian ninnu, Neapolitan nennillo | ||
| minimus | Italian mimmo, Portuguese menino, mimo, mimoso, Spanish mimo, menino-a (chaperone, squire, esquire, page, a court maid of honour as in Velázquez's painting, from Pt.: small child) | ||
| *wrakkio (Frankish) | Old French gars, garçun, French garçon (> Portuguese garoto (boy), garçom (waiter), Neapolitan guaglione | ||
| bambo/bimbo (hypocoristic) (Greek bambainos/bambalos) | Italian bambino, bimbo | ||
| rapace | Portuguese/Spanish/Galician rapaz "lad" | ||
| musteus | Portuguese moço "lad, young man", Italian mozzo, Asturian mozu, Catalan mosso, Spanish/Galician mozo | ||
| mancipius | Portuguese/Spanish mancebo "lad, young man" | ||
| iuvene | French jeune homme, Italian giovane, Portuguese jovem, Galician xove, Spanish joven, Catalan jove, Romanian/Megleno-Romanian june, Istro-Romanian jure, Aromanian gione, (all meaning a youth) | ||
| "breathe" | spīrāre | Portuguese/Spanish espirar "to breathe; to blow", Italian/Aromanian spirare, espirare, inspirare | |
| respīrāre | French respirer (later borrowing/learned term), Italian respirare, Romanian respira (later borrowing based on French), Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan respirar, frequentative form of spirāre | ||
| "brown" | furvus | - | |
| *brūnus (Germanic) | Reichenau glosses | French brun, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese bruno (Romanian brun is a modern loan) | |
| cyma (American Spanish cimarrón, from cima, French marron in sense of "escaped, become wild again" borrowed from Spanish) | French marron "chesnut, brown" (probably from Italian), Italian marrone (of uncertain origin), Portuguese marrom (from French), Spanish marrón (borrowed from French), (Romanian maro is a modern loan); Spanish/Portuguese/Italian cima, French cime, Romanian ciumă, Dalmatian čama from Latin cyma | ||
| castaneus (Lat. castanea=chestnut, Greek kastanea) | Spanish castaño, Italian castano, castagno, Portuguese castanho, French châtain, Romanian castaniu (possibly borrowed, but probably inherited in Aromanian cãstãnju) | ||
| maurus (Late Latin maurinus) | Galician mouro, Spanish/Portuguese/Ladino moreno, also Portuguese mauro, maurino and Spanish morocho | ||
| pardus | Portuguese/Spanish pardo | ||
| "buy" | emere | - | |
| comparāre | Old French comparer, Romansh cumprar, Italian comp(e)rare, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan comprar, Romanian cumpăra, Aromanian acumpãr | ||
| *accaptāre | French acheter, Piedmontese caté, Neapolitan accattà ("beg", older "buy"), Portuguese/Spanish acatar "to obey", "respect", "heed"/ "to cull", "pick out", "search"/ "to acquire", "obtain") | ||
| "cat" | fēlēs | - | |
| *cattus | Italian gatto, Spanish/Portuguese gato, Catalan gat, French chat, Romanian cătușă "handcuff" from a diminutive form Aromanian "cãtushã" "cat" | ||
| "cauldron" | lebēs | - | |
| *calidāria | Reichenau glosses | French chaudière, Italian caldaio, Romanian căldare, Spanish caldera, Portuguese caldeira, from calidus "warm" | |
| "change" | mūtāre | French muer "to molt", Italian mutare, Spanish/Portuguese mudar, mutar, Romanian muta | |
| *cambiāre (Gaulish[4]) | Fr changer, It cambiare, Sp cambiar, Pt cambiar ("barter", "exchange money") not in classical Latin, probably originally "to exchange", (French échanger, Italian scambiare, and Romanian schimba from excambiāre) | ||
| "cheese" | caseus | Italian cacio, Sardinian casu, Spanish queso, Portuguese queijo, Galician queixo, Romanian/Megleno-Romanian caș, Aromanian cashu", Istro-Romanian cǫș, also borrowed into Germanic: English cheese, German Käse | |
| fōrmāticum | Reichenau glosses | French fromage, Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, post-classical, from fōrmāre, "to form" | |
| "child" | līberī | - | |
| īnfāns | French enfant, Catalan infant, Italian fante "infantryman", Italian/Spanish/Portuguese infante, "child", "infant prince" or "infantryman" | ||
| "city" | urbs | Romanian/Spanish/Portuguese urbe (however these may all be re-introductions), Italian urbe | |
| oppidum | - | ||
| cīvitās | French cité, Italian città, Spanish ciudad, Portuguese cidade, Romanian cetate, Catalan ciutat | ||
| "count" | numerāre | French nombrer, Italian noverare, (e)numerare, Portuguese/Spanish (e)numerar, Romanian număra | |
| computāre | French compter, Italian contare, computare, Spanish/Portuguese contar, computar | ||
| "country" | regione(m) | Old French royon, Italian rione "neighbourhood" (French région, Italian regione, Portuguese região, Galician rexión, Spanish región Romanian regiune are learned forms) | |
| pāgus | Portuguese/Spanish pago | ||
| pāgēnsis | Gregory of Tours | Italian paese, French pays, hence Spanish/Portuguese/Galician/Catalan país, Catalan pagès | |
| "day" | diēs | Italian dì, Sardinan dìe (f.), Romansh di, gi, Spanish/Galician día, Portuguese/Catalan dia, Romanian zi | |
| diurnum | French jour, Italian giorno, Catalan/Occitan jorn, Venetian zorno, Sicilian jornu, Neapolitan juorno | ||
| "destroy" | dēlēre | Portuguese/Galician delir | |
| dēstruere | French détruire, Italian distruggere, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan destruir, Romanian distruge (borrowed from Italian) | ||
| "door" | forīs (adverb forās) | Galician fóra and Portuguese fora "outside", Spanish fuera "outside", Romanian afară "outside", Italian fuori "outside", French hors, Catalan fora "outside" | |
| ostium | Old French huis, Occitan ueissa, Romansh esch, üsch, Italian uscio, Old Spanish uzo, Romanian ușă | ||
| iānua | Sardinian zanna, gianna, Northern Calabrian yanuwẹ; Portuguese janela and Galician xanela "window/opening", from *iānuella | ||
| porta | French porte, Italian/Portuguese/Galician/Catalan porta, Spanish puerta, Romanian poartă, originally "gate" | ||
| "ear" | auris | - | |
| auricula (diminutive), oricla (Vulgar Latin) | French oreille, Italian orecchio, Spanish oreja, Portuguese orelha, Catalan/Galician orella, Romanian ureche, Aromanian ureaclje, Occitan aurelha, Romansch ureglia, Friulian orele | ||
| "eat" | edere | - | |
| comedere | Spanish/Portuguese/Galician comer | ||
| mandūcāre | French manger, Italian manducare, Logudorese Sardinian man(d)icare, Romanian mânca, Dalmatian mančur (Italian mangiare and Portuguese manjar are from the French) | ||
| "enemy" | hostis | Spanish hueste, Portuguese/Galician hoste, Romanian/Aromanian oaste, Istro-Romanian oste, Megleno-Romanian ǫsti, "army", Italian oste, ostile | |
| inimīcus | French ennemi, Catalan enemic, Italian nemico, Spanish enemigo, Portuguese/Galician inimigo, Romanian inamic (later borrowing); in Classical Latin, inimīcus is "a personal enemy" | ||
| "evening" | vesper | French vêpre, Italian vespro, Catalan vespre, Spanish vísperas, Portuguese vésper, vésperas, normally in an ecclesiastical meaning | |
| sēra | French soir, Italian sera, Romanian seară, Galician serán, Portuguese serão, sereno, Spanish sereno | ||
| tardis | Spanish/Portuguese/Galician tarde "afternoon", Italian tardi "late", Catalan tarda "afternoon", Catalan/French tard "late",Romanian târziu | ||
| "fat" | pinguis | Italian pingue "fertile" | |
| crassus > *grassus "thick" | Reichenau glosses | French/Romanian gras, Italian grasso, Sardinian rassu, Spanish graso, Portuguese crasso/graxo, with g- from grossus | |
| grossus "fat" | French/Romanian gros, Italian/Portuguese grosso, Galician groso, Spanish grueso, Dalmatian gruos | ||
| "feather" | penna | French penne, Italian penna, Sardinian pinna, Occitan/Portuguese pena, Romanian pană | |
| plūma | French plume, Italian piuma, Spanish/Portuguese pluma (a reintroduction), Old Galician chumazo 'mattress', Catalan ploma | ||
| "field" | ager | Portuguese/Spanish agro, Romanian/Aromanian agru | |
| campus | Reichenau glosses | French/Romansh champ, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese campo, Romanian câmp, Catalan camp | |
| "fight" | pugna | Portuguese/Spanish pugna (a reintroduction), Old Galician puña 'effort' | |
| *lūcta | French lutte, Italian lotta, Portuguese luta, Catalan lluita, Galician loita, Spanish lucha, Romanian luptă, originally "wrestling match", post-classical, classical equivalents were lūctāmen and lūctātiō, all from lūctārī, "to fight" | ||
| "find" | invenīre | Italian rinvenire | |
| *incontrāre | Spanish/Portuguese encontrar, originally "meet" (French encontrer, Italian incontrare) | ||
| turbāre | French trouver, Catalan trobar, Italian trovare, originally "disturb" (Italian turbare, Romanian turba) > "track down" (Spanish turbar, Portuguese torvar/turbar/trovar "impede") | ||
| "fight" | pugnāre | Portuguese/Spanish pugnar, Spanish/Galician puñar, Italian pugnare | |
| luctārī | Italian lottare, Spanish luchar, Portuguese lutar, Galician loitar, Romanian lupta, Aromanian alumtu | ||
| "fingernail" | unguis | - | |
| ungula (diminutive) | Reichenau glosses | French ongle, Italian unghia, Spanish uña, Portuguese unha, Galician uña and unlla, Neapolitan ogna, Catalan ungla, Romanian unghie, Aromanian unglje, Dalmatian jongla, Occitan onha, Romansh ungla | |
| "fire" | ignis | Italian "igne" | |
| focus | French feu, Italian fuoco, Spanish fuego, Portuguese/Galician fogo, Romanian/Aromanian/Catalan foc, Romansh fieu, fiug | ||
| "food" | cibus | Italian dial. cevo and similar forms (Italian cibo is a learned form), Portuguese ceva and cibo, Spanish cebo | |
| alimenta | French alimentation, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese alimento, Catalan aliment | ||
| "force" | vīs | - | |
| *fortia | Reichenau glosses | French force, Italian/Galician forza, Spanish fuerza, Portuguese força, from fortis, "strong", (Romanian forță neologism based on French) | |
| "from" | ab | - | |
| dē | French/Spanish/Portuguese/Galician/Romanian/Catalan de, Italian da (< de ab) and di ("of"), Sardinian dae | ||
| "garden" | hortus | Italian orto, Spanish huerto, Portuguese horto/a | |
| *gardīnus (Germanic *gardaz) | French jardin, Italian giardino, Spanish jardín, Catalan jardí, Portuguese jardim, (Romanian grădină probably of Slavic origin) | ||
| "girl" | puella | Portuguese puela (learned form) | |
| fīlia | French fille, also and originally "daughter" (the regular meaning in other Romance languages: It. figlia, Pt. filha, Gl. filla, Ro. fie, fiică, Arm. hilje, Oc. filha, Cat. filla, Scn. figghia, Fur. fie, Rm. figlia, Sp. hija) | ||
| *ninna (hypocoristic) | Spanish niña, Catalan noi(a), Galician 'nena', Portuguese menina, nini, nenén | ||
| "head" | caput | French chef "chief", Spanish/Portuguese/Galician cabo "end", Catalan/Romanian cap, Italian capo "leader, head" | |
| *capetium | Spanish/Galician cabeza "head", Portuguese cabeça "head", Neapolitan capa "head", French chevet "headboard" | ||
| testa | French tête, Italian testa, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician testa "forehead", Romanian țeastă "skull", originally "pot" | ||
| "helmet" | galea | - | |
| cofea (Germanic)[5] | Romanian coif (cf. English coif<Old French coife<L.Latin cofea<Old High German kuphia), Italian cuffia "cap, bonnet", now also "headphone" | ||
| *helmus (Germanic *helmaz) | Reichenau glosses | French heaume, Italian/Portuguese elmo, Catalan elm, Spanish yelmo | |
| "help" | iuvāre | Italian giovare | |
| adiūtāre | French aider, Italian aiutare, Spanish ayudar, Portuguese/Catalan ajudar, Galician axudar, Romanian ajuta, frequentative of iuvāre with prefix ad | ||
| "horse" | equa (Fem.) | Old French iève, Occitan ego, Portuguese égua, Galician egua, Catalan euga, Spanish yegua, Sardinian ebba, Romanian iapă, Aromanian iapã, all meaning "mare" | |
| caballus | French cheval, Romansh chaval, Italian cavallo, Sardinian cadd(h)u, Portuguese cavalo, Galician cabalo, Spanish caballo, Romanian/Aromanian cal | ||
| "house" | domus | Italian duomo "cathedral", Sardinian domo "home" | |
| casa | French chez "at the house of", Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan casa, Romanian casă, Aromanian casã; in Classical Latin, casa is "a humble dwelling" | ||
| mānsiō | French maison, Portuguese mansão, Italian magione, mansione "work"; in Classical Latin "a stop-over on a trip", Spanish mansión (a learned form) and mesón. | ||
| "huge" | ingēns | Portuguese/Spanish ingente "enormous" (learned form/borrowing), Italian ingente "numerous" | |
| ēnormis | French énorme (learned form/borrowing), Italian/Spanish/Portuguese enorme, Romanian enorm (borrowing from French) | ||
| "hunt" | vēnārī | Old French vener "to hunt deer", Catalan venar, Romanian vâna, Aromanian avin, avinare, Portuguese veadar "to hunt deer" | |
| *captiāre | French chasser, Italian cacciare, Spanish/Galician cazar, Occitan/Portuguese/Catalan caçar; post-classical, frequentative of capere, "to catch" | ||
| "kill" | necāre | French noyer, Occitan/Catalan/Romansh negar, Friulian inneâsi, Italian annegare, Spanish/Portuguese anegar, Romanian îneca "drown", Aromanian nec, necare | |
| interficere | - | ||
| mactare | French mater, Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan matar, originally "to sacrifice, immolate", Italian "ammazzare" | ||
| occīdere | Reichenau glosses | Old French occir, Italian uccidere, Romanian ucide, Aromanian tsid, tsidere, Catalan occir | |
| trux cidare | Italian trucidare, French trucider, Portuguese/Spanish trucidar (both meaning slay) | ||
| tūtārī | French tuer, originally "protect oneself, tutor" | ||
| "kiss" | ōsculārī | Portuguese/Galician oscular (learned form), Spanish ósculo | |
| bāsiāre | Catullus, Petronius | French baiser, Italian baciare, Spanish besar, Portuguese beijar, Galician beixar, Aromanian bash | |
| "kitchen" | culīna | - | |
| coquīna | Apuleius | French cuisine, Italian cucina, Catalan cuina, Spanish cocina, Portuguese cozinha, Galician cociña | |
| "know" | scīre | Romanian ști, Aromanian shtiu, Sardinian iskire | |
| sapere | French savoir, Italian sapere, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan/Galician saber | ||
| "leg" | crūs | - | |
| *camba (Greek) | Vegetius (4th cent.) | French jambe, Catalan cama, Italian gamba, Portuguese camba, Romanian gambă (possibly borrowed), also Pt "câimbra, cambito, cambalhota, gâmbia, gambeta" | |
| perna | Portuguese/Galician perna, pernil, Spanish pierna | ||
| "little" | ciccum "trifle" (< Greek kikkos) | French chiche, Italian cece, Bolognese zeis, Catalan xic "small", Spanish chico "boy" | |
| "male" | mās | - Romanian mare ("big"), possibly from the accusative form mārem | |
| māsculus (diminutive) | Reichenau glosses | Neapolitan masculo, French mâle, Catalan mascle, Italian maschio, Portuguese/Galician (> Spanish) macho, Dialectal Romanian mascur (male pig) | |
| "man" | vir | - | |
| homō, hominem | French homme, Neapolitan homme, Italian uomo, Sardinian òmine, Portuguese homem, Galician home, Spanish hombre, Catalan home, Romanian om, in Classical Latin "a human being" (in opposition to gods and beasts) | ||
| "market" | forum | Old French fuer "law", Spanish fuero "id.", Portuguese foro/fórum "court", Italian foro, "hole" | |
| mercatum | Reichenau glosses | French marché, Italian mercato, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician mercado, Catalan mercat | |
| "mob" | turba | Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan turba | |
| *fulcus (Germanic *fulkaN) | Reichenau glosses | French foule, Italian folla, Portuguese folia | |
| "money" | pecūnia | Spanish/Italian pecunia, Portuguese pecúnia (learned), French pécune , Aromanian piculju/picunlju | |
| dēnārius | Italian denaro, Sardinian (d)inare, French denier, Spanish dinero, Portuguese dinheiro, Galician diñeiro, Catalan diners, originally a Roman coin | ||
| argentum | French argent, both "money" and "silver" (both meanings in Classical Latin), Italian argento, "silver", Romanian argint, Spanish and Portuguese plata/prata from Provençal "silver" | ||
| "mouth" | ōs | - | |
| bucca | French bouche, Italian bocca, Sardinian (b)ucca, Romanian/Megleno-Romanian bucă "buttcheek", Aromanian bucã, Portuguese/Galician/Spanish/Catalan boca, originally "cheek" | ||
| "narrow" | angustus | Italian/Portuguese angusto, Spanish angosto, Romanian îngust, Macedo-Romanian ngustu, Istro-Romanian ăngust | |
| strictus | French étroit, Italian stretto, Portuguese estreito, estrito, Spanish estrecho, Romanian strâmt, Aromanian strãmtu, Catalan estret | ||
| "never" | numquam | Old French nonques, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician nunca | |
| iam magis | French/Portuguese jamais, Galician xamais, Italian giammai, Spanish jamás, originally "ever" | ||
| "obey" | pārēre | - | |
| oboedīre | French obéir, Italian obbedire, Spanish/Portuguese obedecer | ||
| "old" | vetus | Old French viez, Italian vieto, "vestusto", Portuguese/Spanish vetusto (vetustus); Galician vedraño 'old men', Romanian bătrân 'old man' (to veteranus) | |
| vetulus (diminutive) veclus (vulgar transformation) | French vieux, Italian vecchio, Spanish viejo, Catalan vell, Portuguese velho, Galician vello, Venetian vecio, Romanian vechi, Aromanian veclju; diminutive of vetus | ||
| "papyrus > paper" | charta | Italian carta, Romanian carte (book), Spanish/Portuguese carta "letter/chart" | |
| papȳrus | French papier, Sardinian pabilu (logud.) and paperi (camp.), Spanish/Portuguese papel, Catalan paper, Neapolitan papiello | ||
| "pay" | (ex)pendere | - | |
| dispendere | Italian spendere (Portuguese/Spanish despender, Catalan despendre "use") | ||
| pācāre | French payer, Italian pagare, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese/Galician pagar, Romanian împăca "make peace with"; originally "bring under control" in Latin | ||
| "play v." | lūdere | - | |
| iocārī | French jouer, Italian giocare, Spanish jugar, Portuguese jogar, Galician xogar, Neapolitan jucà, Romanian juca, Aromanian gioc, giucare | ||
| "play n." | lūdus | Portuguese ludo | |
| iocus | French jeu, Italian gioco, Spanish juego, Portuguese jogo, Galician xogo, Romanian/Istro-Romanian/Megleno-Romanian joc, Aromanian gioc | ||
| "quail" | coturnīx | Spanish/Portuguese codorniz, codorna, Catalan codorniu, Old Italian codornice, Romanian potârniche "partridge" | |
| *coācula (Germanic, from Frankish *kwakla) | Reichenau glosses | French caille, Italian quaglia | |
| "quick" | celer | Portuguese célere; Spanish celeridad (swiftness, a learned form), Italian celere | |
| rapidus | Romanian repede Istro-Romanian răpede; French rapide, Italian rapido, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician rápido are learned forms that have replaced the regular outcomes Old French rade, Italian ratto, Spanish raudo | ||
| velox | Spanish/Portuguese/Galician veloz (learned forms); Italian veloce | ||
| "recognise" | agnōscere | - | |
| recognōscere | French reconnaître, Italian riconoscere, Portuguese reconhecer, Galician recoñecer, Spanish reconocer, Romanian recunoaște (based partly on French) | ||
| "red" | rubeus / rubidus | French rouge, Portuguese rúbeo, ruivo (red head, red-haired), rúbido, rubente, Galician rubio, roibo, Spanish rúbeo, rubio (blond, fair hair), rubicundo, Catalan roig, Italian rubino, Romanian roib (chestnut horse) | |
| ruber | Portuguese/Galician/Spanish rubro | ||
| rufus | Portuguese/Galician/Spanish rufo (learned forms, English rufous) | ||
| russeus / russus | French roux (red head, red-haired), Italian rosso, Portuguese rússeo, roxo (purple), Galician roxo, Spanish rojo, Romanian roșu, Megleno-Romanian roș, Istro-Romanian roiș, Macedo-Romanian aroș/arosh, Catalan ros (blond) | ||
| vermiculus (Late Latin) | Catalan vermell, Portuguese vermelho, Galician vermello, Old French vermeillon (English vermillion/vermeil), Spanish bermejo, Italian vermiglio | ||
| "right a." (opp. "left") | dexter | Italian/Portuguese destro, Spanish diestro, Catalan destre, Romanian zestre "dowry" | |
| dirēctus | French droit, Italian diritto, Sardinian dereta, Spanish derecho and derecha, Portuguese direito, direto (straight, direct), Romanian drept, Macedo-Romanian dreptu, Istro-Romanian dirept, Catalan dret | ||
| "right n." | iūs | Sicilian iussu | |
| dirēctus | French droit, Italian diritto, Spanish derecho, Portuguese direito, Romanian drept, Macedo-Romanian dreptu, Istro-Romanian dirept | ||
| "river" | flūmen | Italian fiume, Sicilian hiumi, Sardinian flumene, Portuguese flume/flúmen (learned) Aromanian flumin | |
| fluvius | Portuguese flúvio (learned), French fleuve (merged with Frank. *flōda "river to the sea"), Romanian fluviu (learned) | ||
| rīvus | Old French ri(f), Old Italian rigo, Sardinian (ar)riu, Spanish/Galician río, Italian/Portuguese rio, Catalan riu, Romanian râu, Aromanian arãu | ||
| "rock" | saxum | Italian sasso, Portuguese saxo, seixo, Galician seixo | |
| *rocca (perhaps Germanic[6]) | French roche, Italian roccia, Portuguese rocha, Spanish roca, post-classical | ||
| "rope" | fūnis | Italian fune, Romanian funie, Portuguese/Spanish funículo (learned) | |
| chorda | French corde, Italian/Portuguese/Catalan corda, Spanish cuerda, Romanian coardă | ||
| "sand" | arena | Sardinian rena (log.) and arena (camp.), Spanish arena, Portuguese areia, Galician area, Dialectal Romanian arină, Sicilian rina, Italian rena | |
| sabulo | French sable, Italian sabbia, Catalan sorra, Portuguese saibro, Romanian sabie, Spanish sabre | ||
| "shirt" | tunica | Italian tonaca, Spanish tonga "coat", Portuguese túnica "coat" | |
| camisia (Gaulish < Germanic) | Jerome | Vegliot kamaisa/camaisa, Sardinian camisa, Romanian cămașă, French chemise, chainse "canvas", Aromanian cãmeashã, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan camisa, Italian camicia | |
| "short" | brevis | French bref, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese breve | |
| curtus | Portuguese curto, French court, Italian/Spanish corto, Romanian scurt and Aromanian shcurtu (< excurtus) | ||
| "show" | ostendere | Portuguese/Spanish ostentar, Italian ostentare | |
| mōnstrāre | French montrer (with Latin n for earlier mostrer), Italian mostrare, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician mostrar, Galician amosar (*admōnstrāre), Romanian mustra "chide" | ||
| "sick" | aeger | Italian egro | |
| dolente | Portuguese doente, Spanish doliente, Italian dolente, Catalan dolent (bad) | ||
| infirmus | Spanish/Portuguese enfermo, Italian infermo | ||
| male habitus | Nepos, Aulus Gellius | French malade, Italian malato, Occitan malaut, Catalan malalt, Galician malato, malado, Portuguese maladia/mal hábito, originally "in a bad condition", Sardinian malaidu | |
| "sing" | canere | - | |
| cantāre (frequentative) | French chanter, Romansh chantar, Italian/Sardinian cantare, Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan cantar, Romanian cânta, Aromanian cãntu, cãntare | ||
| "skin" | cutis | Portuguese cútis; Spanish cutis, Italian cute | |
| pellis | French peau, Italian pelle, Spanish piel, Portuguese pele, Sardinian pedd(h)e, Galician pel, Catalan pell, Romanian piele; in Classical Latin normally "a hide" | ||
| "speak" | loquī | - | |
| fābulārī | Spanish hablar, Portuguese falar, but Italian favellare "to tell a tale", Occitan faular "id.", Old French fabler "id.", Dalmatian faular, Sardinian faeddare | ||
| *parabolāre | French parler, Occitan/Catalan parlar, Italian parlare | ||
| "spear" | fustis | Romanian fuște, Italian fusto "tree trunk", Sardinian fuste (stick), French fût "cask" | |
| hasta | Portuguese hasta/e, Spanish asta (shaft of a weapon), Italian asta, French hast "pole-arm" | ||
| lancea | French lance, Italian lancia, Spanish/Galician lanza, Portuguese lança, Catalan llança | ||
| "spring" | vēr | Romanian vară, Spanish verano, Portuguese verão "summer", Galician verán, Friulian vierte. | |
| prīma vēra | Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan primavera, Occitan primver, Romansh primavera, prümavaira, Romanian primăvară, Aromanian primuvearã; originally "first spring" in Latin | ||
| prīmum tempus | French printemps, literally "first time" | ||
| "stone" | lapis | Italian lapide, Portuguese lápide, Spanish lápida (learned forms) | |
| petra (Greek) | French pierre, Italian pietra, Sardinian perda, Spanish piedra, Portuguese/Catalan pedra, Romanian piatră, Aromanian chiatrã, Dalmatian pitra | ||
| "stonemason" | cēmentarius | - | |
| mattiō (Frankish) | Reichenau glosses | French maçon | |
| petrarius | Portuguese pedreiro, Romanian pietrar | ||
| "sword" | gladium | French glai "iris", Old Italian ghiado, Portuguese gládio, Spanish gladio (learned forms) | |
| spatha (Greek) | French épée, Italian spada, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician espada, Catalan espasa, Romanian spată | ||
| "take" | capere | Old French chavoir, Catalan cabre, Italian capire "understand", Spanish/Portuguese caber "contain", Romanian încăpea "comprise, accommodate, fit" (from *incapēre) | |
| prehendere | French prendre, Italian prendere, Catalan pendre, Romanian prinde, Spanish/Portuguese prender | ||
| "teach" | docēre | Old French duire, Italian/Portuguese/Spanish docente (noun) | |
| *insignāre | French enseigner, Italian insegnare, Romanian însemna, Spanish enseñar, Portuguese/Galician ensinar, Catalan ensenyar probably originally "to engrave", from signāre, "to engrave", with prefix in- | ||
| "thigh" | femur | Portuguese fêmur (femur—a learned word), Spanish fémur, Italian femore | |
| coxa | Reichenau glosses | Portuguese, Galician and Old Spanish coxa, French cuisse, Italian coscia, Sardinian coscia or cossa, Catalan cuixa, Romanian coapsă, originally "hip", first attested in Silver Latin | |
| "thing" | rēs | French (ne) ... rien "nothing", Old Portuguese rem/nulla res "nothing", Catalan res "nothing" | |
| causa | Reichenau glosses | French chose, Italian/Spanish/Sardinian/Catalan cosa, Portuguese coisa/cousa, causa, originally "cause", Galician cousa, Romanian cauză (borrowed from French, and has another meaning: din această cauză is 'Because of –this-') | |
| "think" | cōgitāre | Old French cuidier, Old Italian coitare, Portuguese/Spanish cuidar "to be careful; to suppose", Portuguese cogitar "to think; contemplate", Galician coidar "to think", Romanian cugeta | |
| pensāre | French penser, Italian pensare, Spanish/Portuguese pensar, Romanian păsa "to care (about)", Sardinian pessare | ||
| "throw" | iacere | French gésir "to rest in peace", Romansch giaschair "to lie down", Italian giacere, Catalan jaure, Spanish yacer, Occitan/Portuguese jazer, Galician xacer "to lie down", Romanian zăcea, Aromanian dzac, dzãtseare | |
| iactāre | French jeter, Catalan gitar, Occitan getar, Italian gettare, Sardinian ghetare, Spanish echar, Neapolitan jettà, Portuguese geitar, Galician xeitar; originally a frequentative | ||
| "tomorrow" | crās | Sardinian cras, Sicilian crai, Old Spanish cra | |
| māne | Old French main, Occitan man, Old Italian/Old Spanish mane, Romanian mâine, all "in the morning", Portuguese manhã "morning", Spanish mañana “morning, tomorrow” | ||
| "touch" | tangere | Italian tangere, Portuguese tanger (touch and play), Spanish tañer "play an instrument", Romanian atinge (<Latin attingere) "to touch" [French atteindre "to reach, be on target", Portuguese/Spanish atingir (attain, get at, hit, reach, achieve, bear on, touch on, upon), Italian attingere (draw, get), from Vulgar Latin *attangere, from Latin attingere : ad-, ad- + tangere, to touch] | |
| *toccāre (Germanic *tukkōn "to knock, offend") | French toucher/toquer, Italian toccare, Sardinian tucare, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan tocar (touch and play), probably originally "to knock, strike", Romanian toc (onomatopoeic, indicating a knock), toca (to beat or cut into pieces), toacă (singing wooden board) | ||
| "understand" | intelligere | Romanian înțelege, Romansh encleger, Portuguese inteligir | |
| comprehendere | French/Catalan comprendre, Portuguese compreender, Italian comprendere, Spanish comprender, Romanian cuprinde | ||
| capere | Italian capire "understand" (Old French chavoir, Spanish/Portuguese/Galician caber "contain") | ||
| intendere | Italian/Sardinian intendere, Portuguese/Spanish/Galician entender, Catalan entendre, French entendre "to hear", orig. "to intend", Romanian întinde "stretch" | ||
| "war" | bellum | - | |
| *werra (Germanic) | French guerre, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Galician/Catalan guerra (It. pronounced 'gwerra'), Sardinian gherra | ||
| "weep" | flēre | Friulian vaî | |
| planctus | Portuguese pranto, prantear (learned form), Spanish llanto (noun) | ||
| plangere | Romanian plânge, Sardinian prànghere or piànghere, French plaindre "to complain", Occitan planher, Catalan plànyer, Spanish plañir, Italian piangere, Sardinian plànghiri, prànghiri, Dalmatian plungre; Portuguese planger (learned form) | ||
| plōrāre | Reichenau glosses | French pleurer, Spanish llorar, Portuguese chorar, Catalan/Occitan plorar, Old Italian piorare, Romanian implora | |
| "white" | albus | Romansh alv, Friulian alf, Dalmatian jualb, Romanian alb, Portuguese alvo | |
| *blancus (Germanic) | French/Catalan blanc, Italian bianco, Spanish blanco, Portuguese branco | ||
| "why" | cūr | - | |
| prō quō | French pourquoi, Italian perché, Spanish por qué, Portuguese porque/por que/porquê/por quê, Catalan perquè Romanian pentru ce (although de ce is more frequently used) | ||
| "wide" | lātus | Italian lato, Portuguese/Galician/Spanish lado, Romanian lat | |
| largus | French large, Italian/Portuguese/Galician/Spanish largo, Catalan llarg, Romanian larg, originally "abundant" | ||
| "winter" | hiems | - | |
| hibernus | Reichenau glosses | French hiver, Romansh dial. inviern, Italian/Portuguese inverno, Spanish invierno, Catalan hivern, Romanian iarnă, Aromanian iarã; adjective of hiems | |
| "woman" | fēmina | French femme, Italian femmina, Neapolitan femmena, Sicilian fímmina, Sardinian fémina, Spanish hembra "female", Portuguese fêmea "female", Galician femia, Romanian famen "eunuch" | |
| mulier | Old French moillier, Italian moglie "wife", Neapolitan mujera "wife", Occitan molhèr "wife", Catalan muller "wife", Portuguese mulher, Galician muller, Spanish mujer "woman", Sardinian muzere "wife", Romanian muiere | ||
| domina | Catalan dona "woman", French dame "lady", Italian donna "woman", Portuguese dona "lady", Romanian doamnă "lady", Spanish doña; originally "female head of a household, mistress" | ||
| "word" | verbum | Romansh verv (archaic), Romanian vorbă (possibly of Slavic origin alternatively), Portuguese/Spanish verbo, French verbe | |
| parabola (Greek) | Friulian peraule, Italian parola, Occitan/Catalan paraula, Sardinian para(g)ula, Portuguese palavra, Spanish/Galician palabra, Dalmatian palaura | ||
| "work" | labōrāre | Romansh lavurer "to work", Friulian lavorâ, Italian lavorare, Occitan laurar "to plow, till", Catalan llaurar, Spanish/Galician labrar, Portuguese lavrar | |
| *tripāliāre from trēs, "three" + pālus, "stake" | Romanian treabă, French travailler, Spanish trabajar, Occitan/Portuguese trabalhar, Galician traballar, Catalan treballar, Sardinian tri- or tra- ballare | ||
| lucrāri | Italian logorare "to consume, wear out", Portuguese/Spanish lograr "to obtain", Romanian lucra "to work", also to "plow, till" | ||
| "yellow" | flāvus | - ; Portuguese/Spanish flavo "fair hair" (learned forms) | |
| fulvus | - ; Portuguese/Galician fulvo "fair hair", Italian fulvo (all learned loans) | ||
| galbinus | Petronius, Martial | French/Occitan jaune, Italian gavinello "kestrel", Romanian galben, originally "greenish-yellow"; Old French jalne > Romansh (Vallader) gelg, Ladin gh(i)el, Friulian ğâl, Italian giallo, Old Italian gialde, Lombardo giald, Spanish jalde, Portuguese jardo | |
| amārellus, from amārus "bitter" | Portuguese amarelo, Spanish amarillo, originally "pale, sallow" | ||
| croceus, from crocum "saffron" | Catalan groc, Sardinian grògo | ||
| "yes" | ita | Romanian da | |
| sīc | Reichenau glosses | Italian sì, Spanish/Galician sí, Portuguese sim, French si (to contradict a negative question), Aromanian shi although it is rarely used and e is more common, Catalan si |
Notes
- Harrington et al. (1997).
- From the online Romanian Explanatory Dictionary
- From the online Romanian Explanatory Dictionary
- "change | Search Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
- The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
- G. Rohlfs, Revue de linguistique Romane 28 (1964) 95-102
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