Yao Yizhong

Yao Yizhong was a Qiang chieftain from Chiting county, Nan'an commandary (赤亭, 南安郡; southeast of present-day Longxi County, Gansu). His family claimed to be descendants of Yu the Great and had a long conflicting history with the Han dynasty. His ancestor, Tianyu (填虞) harassed the western regions during the time of Emperor Guangwu of Han's reign between 57 to 58 AD but was eventually driven out by the general Ma Wu. Yizhong's great-great-great-grandfather was Qianna (遷那), who submitted to Han and moved in to what became Yizhong's birthplace. Yizhong's father Yao Kehui (姚柯回) served Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period as General Who Conquers The West, Colonel Who Organizes The Rong and Protector of the Western Qiang. In his youth, Yizhong was characterised as dutiful and well-respected all around.[1]

In 312, a year after the Disaster of Yongjia, Yao Yizhong moved his base to Yumei (榆眉; east of present-day Qianyang County, Shaanxi), where he opened himself to provide shelter to refugees from the east. He attracted thousands of both tribal and Han refugees wishing to escape the chaos, and he then self-proclaimed himself as Inspector of Yongzhou and Colonel Who Protects the Qiang.[2]

After the emperor of Han Zhao, Liu Yao defeated the rebel Chen An in 323, Liu decided to formally appoint Yao Yizhong, who had previously been independent, as General Who Pacifies the West and Duke of Pingxiang.[3] Yizhong did not do anything of note during his time with the state, and six years later, after Han's rival state Later Zhao defeated Liu Yao and his sons, Yao Yizhong submitted to the general Shi Hu, who he advised to tell his uncle and ruler, Shi Le to relocate the families of Longshang (隴上; north of present-day Shaanxi and west of present-day Gansu) to the area surrounding their capital region around Xiangguo, which Shi Hu kept in mind.[4]

After his surrender, Yao Yizhong was treated with respect and given the titles of General Who Maintains The West and Commander of the Left of the Six Tribes. A year later, the Jin rebel Zu Yue involved in Su Jun's rebellion fled to Later Zhao, seeking their protection. Shi Le entertained him initially but deep down he was not fond of Zu, and even his close advisor Cheng Xia urged him to execute him and his family, believing that they could not be trusted. Yao Yizhong advocated for Cheng Xia, sending a memorial that states, "Zu Yue was a rebellious thief of the Jin dynasty, driving the Empress Dowager to death and was not loyal to his lord. Yet, Your Majesty continues to spoil him, and your ministers fear this will sprout into chaos. This is simply the beginning." Shi Le took their advice and executed Zu Yue along with his family.[5]

Shi Le died in 333, leaving the throne to his son Shi Hong. However, in a coup, Shi Hu killed the prominent advisors Cheng Xia and Xu Guang and made Hong a puppet emperor. Shi Hu acted out Yizhong's advice when he first joined the state, appointing Yizhong Grand Commander of the Western Qiang and relocating him and thousands of families from the west to Shetou (灄頭; southeast of present-day Zaoqiang County, Hebei), Qinghe commandary.

The following year, Shi Hu killed Shi Hong and declared himself "Regent Heavenly Prince". Yizhong hated this decision, so he feigned illness to avoid needing to congratulate Shi Hu but was eventually pushed to meet him. When the two finally met, Yizhong sternly criticised Shi Hu but Hu defended himself by saying that Shi Hong was too young for a ruler and would not be able to handle affairs. Shi Hu feared Yizhong's character and refused to punish him. In the meantime, Yizhong was still not at ease with Shi Hu's answer. Eventually, however, Yizhong came to accept Shi Hong's fate and continued to serve Shi Hu.[6]

In 338, he served as the Champion General during the Later Zhao and Former Yan joint attack on the Duan tribe. In the assault, he and Zhi Xiong led 70,000 troops and headed the vanguard in attacking Duan Liao (段遼). Though the Duan were defeated, the campaign escalated into a war between Zhao and Yan after Shi Hu suspected Yan of betraying the alliance, although Yizhong's involvement in this is not recorded. [7] In 345, he was made Credential Bearer and Grand Champion General and given command over ten commanderies and the Six Tribes.

Yizhong stood out in Shi Hu court for being both humble yet very blunt with his words, his most notable habit being referring to everyone including Shi Hu as "you (汝)" rather than their respective titles when talking to them. Shi Hu greatly valued him and put aside any judgement when it comes to him. On major discussions, Shi Hu always gave him the final say on what was to be carried out, and the ministers all feared him because of this. Despite Shi Hu's flattery, Yizhong was also stern and strict when it comes to the law. On one occasion, the brother of Shi Hu's favorite concubine, Zuo Wei (左尉), trespassed into his camp and harassed the soldiers. Yizhong caught him and, despite Zuo's relationship and position, he was determined to have him executed for his crimes. Zuo Wei was said to have kowtowed relentlessly until he started bleeding. Yizhong's subordinate urged him to let him go, and so he did.[8]

In 349, Shi Hu had chosen Shi Shi as his new heir and declared himself Heavenly Prince, but a crisis struck Zhao when Shi Hu was granting out amnesty. He had left out the guards of one of his sons, Shi Xuan (石宣), who were exiled to Liaodong after Shi Xuan after Shi Hu executed him for staging an assassination on Hu himself. The guards rallied under their captain Liang Du (梁犢) and marched south to capture Luoyang, defeating many generals in their way. The rebel's success was shocking to many, and Shi Hu panicked so much that he was driven to illness.[9]

As the rebels approached Luoyang, Shi Hu ordered his son, Shi Bin to quell the rebellion together with Yizhong and Pu Hong. Before leaving to face them, Yizhong visited the capital to personally meet with Shi Hu. As Hu was sick, he refused to come out and instead had Yizhong treated with food at the royal table. Yizhong was furious by this and demanded Shi Hu to meet him at once. After Hu finally came out to see him, Yizhong scolded Shi Hu and said:[9]

"Because of your dead child (Shi Xuan), you choose to be sad? When he was young, you failed to surround him with good men to guide him, and so he grew to be rebellious. If his treachery was punishable, then why bother? You have been sick for some time and your heir is a mere child. If something were to happen to you, the realm will be thrown into chaos. Worry about this rather than those thieves. Liang Du and his men gathered out of desperation, and together they burden the people through their banditry. They will surely not last long. Let this old Qiang handle it for you!"

Shi Hu immediately made Yizhong Commissioner Bearing Credentials, Palace Attendant, and General Who Conquers The West and gifted him an armoured horse without formality or ceremony as Yizhong disliked them. Before embarking, he said to Shi Hu, "Observe, do you think this Old Qiang will smash these rebels?" He wore his armour and mounted the steed that Shi Hu had given to him before leaving without any further say. Yizhong joined the Grand Commander Shi Bin (石斌) at Xingyang and quickly put down the rebellion, taking Liang Du's head. With the rebellion destroyed, Shi Hu awarded Yizhong with the title Duke of Xiping commandary. He was also given the privilege of entering the palace without removing his sword and shoes and entering the court without hastening his steps.[9]

Despite the rebellion's demise, Shi Hu's body had taken a toll on him and would die shortly after in 349. He was succeeded by his preteen son Shi Shi as expected but many including Yao Yizhong were frustrated at the power held by Empress Dowager Liu and the Prime Minister Zhang Chai (張豺) in the court. This was made worse when they sent an army to kill the Minister of Works, Li Nong, so Yizhong and other prominent generals such as Pu Hong and Shi Min conspired with Shi Shi's half-brother, Shi Zun to restore the court. Shi Zun successfully overthrew and executed Shi Shi, the Empress Dowager and Zhang Chai along with their followers, proclaiming himself as the new emperor.[10]

Shi Zun did not last a year however, as he would later be killed in a coup by Shi Min, the adopted Han Chinese grandson of Shi Hu, who had found out of Zun's plans to remove him. Shi Min and his ally Li Nong would install Zun's brother Shi Jian as the new emperor, but power was virtually held by the duo. Shi Jian's brother, Shi Zhi, who was positioned in Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xingtai, Hebei) called for a coalition against Shi Min and Li Nong. Many accepted it including Yizhong, who rose in Shetou.[11]

The following year, Yao Yizhong camped at Hunqiao (混橋) to campaign against Shi Min (now named Ran Min). His sons Yao Yi (姚益) and Yao Ruo (姚若) managed to escape Yecheng and joined their father. Yizhong and the Di general Pu Hong both wanted the strategic position of Guanyou (關右, west of present-day Tongguan county, Shaanxi). Yizhong sent his son fifth son, Yao Xiang to capture it but Pu Hong routed him and occupied the area. Meanwhile, Shi Zhi formally declared himself as emperor after Shi Jian was killed by Ran Min, and Yizhong was appointed as his Prime Minister of the Right.[12] Meanwhile, Yizhong chose Yao Xiang as his heir due to the popular support that Xiang was receiving.[13]

Ran Min eventually besieged Xiangguo, and Shi Zhi desperately called Yizhong for help. Yizhong sent Yao Xiang to lift the siege, but not before asking him to swear that he would capture Ran Min, and contacted the state of Former Yan to send reinforcements. Former Yan sent Yue Wan and together with Yao Xiang and Shi Kun (石琨), they attacked Ran Min from three sides, dealing him a major defeat.[14] However, Ran Min managed to escape, and after Yao Xiang's return, Yizhong had him flogged for not fulfilling his promise.[15]

Shi Zhi and his ministers would be assassinated by a defector named Liu Xian (劉顯), allowing Ran Min to occupy the city. With the emperor dead, Yao Yizhong decided to submit to the Jin dynasty. Jin received his surrender and appointed him Grand Chanyu.[16]