Zirconium diboride

ZrB₂ can be synthesized by stoichiometric reaction between constituent elements, in this case Zr and B. This reaction provides for precise stoichiometric control of the materials.[12] At 2000 K, the formation of ZrB₂ via stoichiometric reaction is thermodynamically favorable (ΔG=−279.6 kJ mol⁻¹) and therefore, this route can be used to produce ZrB₂ by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). This technique takes advantage of the high exothermic energy of the reaction to cause high temperature, fast combustion reactions. Advantages of SHS include higher purity of ceramic products, increased sinterability, and shorter processing times. However, the extremely rapid heating rates can result in incomplete reactions between Zr and B, the formation of stable oxides of Zr, and the retention of porosity. Stoichiometric reactions have also been carried out by reaction of attrition milled (wearing materials by grinding) Zr and B powder (and then hot pressing at 600 °C for 6 h), and nanoscale particles have been obtained by reacting attrition milled Zr and B precursor crystallites (10 nm in size).[13] Reduction of ZrO₂ and HfO₂ to their respective diborides can also be achieved via metallothermic reduction. Inexpensive precursor materials are used and reacted according to the reaction below:

ZrO₂ + B₂O₃ + 5Mg → ZrB₂ + 5MgO

Mg is used as a reactant in order to allow for acid leaching of unwanted oxide products. Stoichiometric excesses of Mg and B₂O₃ are often required during metallothermic reductions in order to consume all available ZrO₂. These reactions are exothermic and can be used to produce the diborides by SHS. Production of ZrB₂ from ZrO₂ via SHS often leads to incomplete conversion of reactants, and therefore double SHS (DSHS) has been employed by some researchers.[14] A second SHS reaction with Mg and H₃BO₃ as reactants along with the ZrB₂/ZrO₂ mixture yields increased conversion to the diboride, and particle sizes of 25–40 nm at 800 °C. After metallothermic reduction and DSHS reactions, MgO can be separated from ZrB₂ by mild acid leaching.

Synthesis of UHTCs by boron carbide reduction is one of the most popular methods for UHTC synthesis. The precursor materials for this reaction (ZrO₂/TiO₂/HfO₂ and B₄C) are less expensive than those required by the stoichiometric and borothermic reactions. ZrB₂ is prepared at greater than 1600 °C for at least 1 hour by the following reaction:

2ZrO₂ + B₄C + 3C → 2ZrB₂ + 4CO

This method requires a slight excess of boron, as some boron is oxidized during boron carbide reduction. ZrC has also been observed as a product from the reaction, but if the reaction is carried out with 20–25% excess B₄C, the ZrC phase disappears, and only ZrB₂ remains. Lower synthesis temperatures (~1600 °C) produce UHTCs that exhibit finer grain sizes and better sinterability. Boron carbide must be subjected to grinding prior to the boron carbide reduction in order to promote oxide reduction and diffusion processes.

Boron carbide reductions can also be carried out via reactive plasma spraying if a UHTC coating is desired. Precursor or powder particles react with plasma at high temperatures (6000–15000 °C) which greatly reduces the reaction time.[15] ZrB₂ and ZrO₂ phases have been formed using a plasma voltage and current of 50 V and 500 A, respectively. These coating materials exhibit uniform distribution of fine particles and porous microstructures, which increased hydrogen flow rates.

Another method for the synthesis of UHTCs is the borothermic reduction of ZrO₂, TiO₂, or HfO₂ with B.[16] At temperatures higher than 1600 °C, pure diborides can be obtained from this method. Due to the loss of some boron as boron oxide, excess boron is needed during borothermic reduction. Mechanical milling can lower the reaction temperature required during borothermic reduction. This is due to the increased particle mixing and lattice defects that result from decreased particle sizes of ZnO₂ and B after milling. This method is also not very useful for industrial applications due to the loss of expensive boron as boron oxide during the reaction.

Nanocrystals of ZrB₂were successfully synthesized by Zoli's reaction, a reduction of ZrO₂ with NaBH₄ using a molar ratio M:B of 1:4 at 700 °C for 30 min under argon flow.[17][18]

ZrO₂ + 3NaBH₄ → ZrB₂ + 2Na(g,l) + NaBO₂ + 6H₂(g)

ZrB₂ can be prepared from solution-based synthesis methods as well, although few substantial studies have been conducted. Solution-based methods allow for low temperature synthesis of ultrafine UHTC powders. Yan et al. have synthesized ZrB₂ powders using the inorganic-organic precursors ZrOC_l2•8H₂O, boric acid and phenolic resin at 1500 °C.[19] The synthesized powders exhibit 200 nm crystallite size and low oxygen content (~ 1.0 wt%). ZrB₂ preparation from polymeric precursors has also been recently investigated. ZrO₂ and HfO₂ can be dispersed in boron carbide polymeric precursors prior to reaction. Heating the reaction mixture to 1500 °C results in the in situ generation of boron carbide and carbon, and the reduction of ZrO₂ to ZrB₂ soon follows.[20] The polymer must be stable, processable, and contain boron and carbon in order to be useful for the reaction. Dinitrile polymers formed from the condensation of dinitrile with decaborane satisfy these criteria.

Chemical vapor deposition can be used to prepare zirconium diboride. Hydrogen gas is used to reduce vapors of zirconium tetrachloride and boron trichloride at substrate temperatures greater than 800 °C.[21] Recently, high-quality thin films of ZrB₂ can also be prepared by physical vapor deposition.[22]

Zirconium diboride gains its high-temperature mechanical stability from the high atomic defect energies (i.e. the atoms do not deviate easily from their lattice sites).[23] This means that the concentration of defects will remain low, even at high temperatures, preventing failure of the material.

The layered bonding between each layer is also very strong but means that the ceramic is highly anisotropic, having different thermal expansions in the 'z' <001> direction. Although the material has excellent high temperature properties, the ceramic has to be produced extremely carefully as any excess of either zirconium or boron will not be accommodated in the ZrB₂ lattice (i.e. the material does not deviate from stoichiometry). Instead it will form extra lower melting point phases which may initiate failure under extreme conditions.[23]

Zirconium diboride is also investigated as a possible material for nuclear reactor control rods due to the presence of boron and hafnium.

¹⁰B + n_th → [¹¹B] → α + ⁷Li + 2.31 MeV.

The layered structure provides a plane for helium diffusion to occur. He is formed as a transmutation product of boron-10—it is the alpha particle in the above reaction—and will rapidly migrate through the lattice between the layers of zirconium and boron, however not in the 'z' direction. Of interest, the other transmutation product, lithium, is likely to be trapped in the boron vacancies that are produced by the boron-10 transmutation and not be released from the lattice.[23]