Comparison of programming languages
Programming languages are used for controlling the behavior of a machine (often a computer). Like natural languages, programming languages follow the rules for syntax and semantics.
There are thousands of programming languages[1] and new ones are created every year. Few languages ever become sufficiently popular that they are used by more than a few people, but professional programmers may use dozens of languages in a career.
Most programming languages are not standardized by an international (or national) standard, even widely used ones, such as Perl or Standard ML (despite the name). Notable standardized programming languages include ALGOL, C, C++, JavaScript (under the name ECMAScript), Smalltalk, Prolog, Common Lisp, Scheme (IEEE standard), Ada, Fortran, COBOL, SQL and XQuery.
General comparison
The following table compares general and technical information for a selection of commonly used programming languages. See the individual languages' articles for further information. Please note that the following table may be missing some information.
| Language | Intended use | Imperative | Object-oriented | Functional | Procedural | Generic | Reflective | Event-driven | Other paradigm(s) | Standardized? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1C:Enterprise | Application, RAD, business, general, web, mobile | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Object-based,
Prototype-based programming |
No | |
| ActionScript 3.0 | Application, client-side, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1996, ECMA | ||||
| Ada | Application, embedded, realtime, system | Yes | Yes[2] | Yes[3] | Yes[4] | concurrent,[5] distributed,[6] | 1983, 2005, 2012, ANSI, ISO, GOST 27831-88[7] | |||
| Aldor | Highly domain-specific, symbolic computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| ALGOL 58 | Application | Yes | No | |||||||
| ALGOL 60 | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1960, IFIP WG 2.1, ISO[8] | |||||
| ALGOL 68 | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent | 1968, IFIP WG 2.1, GOST 27974-88,[9] | |||
| Ateji PX | Parallel application | Yes | pi calculus | No | ||||||
| APL | Application, data processing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | array-oriented, tacit | 1989, ISO |
| Assembly language | General | Yes | any, syntax is usually highly specific, related to the target processor | IEEE 694-1985[10] | ||||||
| AutoHotkey | GUI automation (macros), highly domain-specific | Yes | Yes[11] | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
| AutoIt | GUI automation (macros), highly domain-specific | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| Ballerina | Integration, agile, server-side, general | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent, transactional, statically and strongly typed programming, diagrammatic / visual programming | 2018 De facto standard via Ballerina Language Specification[12] | ||
| Bash | Shell, scripting | Yes | Yes | No, but optionally POSIX.2 [13] | ||||||
| BASIC | Application, education | Yes | Yes | 1983, ANSI, ISO, ECMA | ||||||
| BeanShell | Application, scripting | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | In progress, JCP[14] | ||||
| BLISS | System | Yes | No | |||||||
| BlitzMax | Application, game | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
| Boo | Application, game scripting | Yes | No | |||||||
| Bro | domain-specific, application | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| C | Application, system,[15] general purpose, low-level operations | Yes | Yes | 1989, ANSI C89, ISO C90, ISO C99, ISO C11, ISO C18[16] | ||||||
| C++ | Application, system | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1998. ISO/IEC 2003, ISO/IEC 2011,ISO/IEC 2014,ISO/IEC 2017[17] | |||
| C# | Application, RAD, business, client-side, general, server-side, web | Yes | Yes | Yes[18] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | structured, concurrent | 2000, ECMA, ISO[19] |
| Clarion | General, business, web | Yes | Yes | Yes[20] | Unknown | |||||
| Clean | General | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Clojure | General | Yes | concurrent | No | ||||||
| CLU | General | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
| COBOL | Application, business | Yes | Yes | Yes | ANSI X3.23 1968, 1974, 1985; ISO/IEC 1989:1985, 2002, 2014 | |||||
| Cobra | Application, business, general, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||
| ColdFusion (CFML) | Web | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Common Lisp | General | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | extensible syntax, Array-oriented, syntactic macros, multiple dispatch, concurrent | 1994, ANSI |
| COMAL 80 | Education | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Crystal | General purpose | Yes | Yes[21] | Yes | Yes | alpha stage[22] | No | |||
| Curry | Application | Yes | Yes | lazy evaluation, non-determinism | De facto standard via Curry Language Report | |||||
| Cython | Application, general, numerical computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | aspect-oriented | No | |||
| D | Application, system | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | generative, concurrent | No | |
| Dart | Application, web, server-side, mobile, IoT | Yes | Yes | Yes | structured | Ecma-408 standard | ||||
| Dylan | Application | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Eiffel | General, application, business, client-side, server-side, web (EWF) | Yes | Yes | Yes[23][24] | Yes | Yes Erl-G | Yes Agents | distributed SCOOP, Void-safe | 2005, ECMA, ISO[25] | |
| Elixir | Application, distributed | Yes | Yes | concurrent, distributed | No | |||||
| Erlang | Application, distributed | Yes | Yes | concurrent, distributed | No | |||||
| Euphoria | Application | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Factor | General | Yes | can be viewed as | Yes | Yes | stack-oriented | No | |||
| FP | Yes | No | ||||||||
| F# | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
| Forth | General | Yes | can be viewed as | stack-oriented | 1994, ANSI | |||||
| Fortran | Application, numerical computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | array-based, vectorized, concurrent, native distributed/shared-memory parallelism | 1966, ANSI 66, ANSI 77, MIL-STD-1753, ISO 90, ISO 95, ISO 2003, ISO/IEC 1539-1:2010 (2008), ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG5 N2145 (2018) | ||
| FreeBASIC | Application, numerical computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
| Gambas | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| Game Maker Language | Application, games | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| GLBasic | Application, games | Yes | Yes | Yes | simple object-oriented | No | ||||
| Go | Application, web, server-side | Yes | [26] | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent | De facto standard via Go Language Specification | ||
| Gosu | Application, general, scripting, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
| GraphTalk | Application | Yes | logic | No | ||||||
| Groovy | Application, general, scripting, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | meta-programming | In progress, JCP[27] |
| Harbour | Application, business, data processing, general, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | declarative | No | |
| Haskell | Application | Yes | Yes | lazy evaluation | 2010, Haskell 2010[28] | |||||
| Haxe | Application, general, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||
| HyperNext | Application, education | Yes | Yes | weakly typed | No | |||||
| HyperTalk | Application, RAD, general | Yes | Yes | weakly typed | Unknown | |||||
| Io | Application, host-driven scripting | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| IPL | General | Yes | Unknown | |||||||
| ISLISP | General | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1997, ISO | ||||
| J | Data processing | array-oriented, function-level, tacit | No | |||||||
| JADE | Application, distributed | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Java | Application, business, client-side, general, mobile development, server-side, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent | De facto standard via Java Language Specification |
| JavaScript | Client-side, server-side, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | prototype-based | 1997, ECMA | |
| Joy | Research | Yes | stack-oriented | No | ||||||
| Julia | General, technical computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | multiple dispatch, meta, scalar and array-oriented, parallel, concurrent, distributed ("cloud") | No | |
| K | Data processing, business | array-oriented, tacit | Unknown | |||||||
| Kotlin | Application, mobile development, server-side, client-side, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes[29] | Yes | No | |
| Ksh | Shell, scripting | Yes | Yes | Yes | several variants, custom programmable, dynamic loadable modules | 1992, POSIX.2 [30] | ||||
| LabVIEW (G) | Application, industrial instrumentation-automation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | dataflow, visual | No | |||
| Lisp | General | Yes | Unknown | |||||||
| LiveCode | Application, RAD, general | Yes | Yes | weakly typed | No | |||||
| Logtalk | Artificial intelligence, application | Yes | Yes | Yes | logic | No | ||||
| LSL | Virtual worlds content scripting and animation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Scripts exist in in-world objects | Maybe[31] | ||||
| Lua | Application, embedded scripting | Yes | Yes[32] | Yes | Yes | Yes | aspect-oriented, prototype-based | No[33] | ||
| Maple | Symbolic computation, numerical computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | distributed | No | |||
| Mathematica | Symbolic language | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | logic, distributed | No |
| MATLAB | Highly domain-specific, numerical computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| Modula-2 | Application, system | Yes | Yes | 1996, ISO[34] | ||||||
| Modula-3 | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| MUMPS (M) | Application, databases | Yes | Yes | concurrent, multi-user, NoSQL, transaction processing | 1977, ANSI | |||||
| Nim | Application, general, web, scripting, system | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | multiple dispatch, Concurrent, meta | No | |
| Oberon | Application, system | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Object Pascal | Application, general, mobile app, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | structured | No | |
| Objective-C | Application, general | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent | No | |||
| OCaml | Application, general | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||
| Occam | General | Yes | Yes | concurrent, process-oriented | No | |||||
| Opa | Web applications | Yes | Yes | Yes | distributed | No | ||||
| OpenLisp | General, Embedded Lisp Engine | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Supersedes ISLISP, ISO | ||||
| Oxygene | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||||
| Oz-Mozart | Application, distribution, education | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent, logic | No | ||||
| Pascal | Application, education | Yes | Yes | 1983, ISO[35] | ||||||
| Perl | Application, scripting, text processing, Web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||
| PHP | Server-side, web application, web | Yes | Yes[36] | Yes[37] | Yes | Yes | "De facto" standard via language specification and Requests for Comments (RFCs) | |||
| PL/I | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1969, ECMA-50 (1976) | |||||
| Plus | Application, system development | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| PostScript | Graphics, page description | Yes | Yes | Yes, as the PostScript Reference Manual[38] | ||||||
| PowerShell | Administration, application, general, scripting | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | pipeline | No | ||
| Prolog | Application, artificial intelligence | Yes | Yes | Yes | logic, declarative | 1995, ISO/IEC 13211-1:1995, TC1 2007, TC2 2012, TC3 2017 | ||||
| PureBasic | Application | Yes | No | |||||||
| Python | Application, general, web, scripting, artificial intelligence, scientific computing | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | aspect-oriented | "De facto" standard via Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) |
| R | Application, statistics | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||
| Racket | Education, general, scripting | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | modular, logic, meta | No | |||
| Raku | Scripting, text processing, glue | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | aspect-oriented, array, lazy evaluation, multiple dispatch, metaprogramming | Yes | |
| REALbasic | Application | Yes | Unknown | |||||||
| Rebol | Distributed | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | dialected | No | |
| REXX | Scripting | Yes | Yes (NetRexx and Object REXX dialects) | No | Yes | No | No | 1996 (ANSI X3.274-1996) | ||
| RPG | Application, system | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Ruby | Application, scripting, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | aspect-oriented | 2011(JIS X 3017), 2012(ISO/IEC 30170) | |||
| Rust | Application, server-side, system, web | Yes | Yes[39] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent | No | |
| S | Application, statistics | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
| S-Lang | Application, numerical, scripting | Yes | Yes | No | ||||||
| Scala | Application, distributed, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | De facto standard via Scala Language Specification (SLS) | ||
| Scheme | Education, general | Yes | extensible syntax | 1998, R6RS | ||||||
| Seed7 | Application, general, scripting, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | multi-paradigm, extensible, structured | No | |||
| Simula | Education, general | Yes | Yes | Yes | discrete event simulation, multi-threaded (quasi-parallel) program execution | 1968 | ||||
| Small Basic | Application, education, games | Yes | Yes | component-oriented | No | |||||
| Smalltalk | Application, general, business, artificial intelligence, education, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent, declarative | 1998, ANSI | |
| SNOBOL | Text processing | Unknown | ||||||||
| Standard ML | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | 1997, SML '97[40] | |||||
| Swift | Application, general | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | concurrent, declarative, protocol-oriented | No |
| Tcl | Application, scripting, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | ||
| Visual Basic | Application, RAD, education, business, general, (Includes VBA), office automation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | component-oriented | No | |||
| Visual Basic .NET | Application, RAD, education, web, business, general | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | structured, concurrent | No |
| Visual FoxPro | Application | Yes | data-centric, logic | No | ||||||
| Visual Prolog | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | declarative, logic | No | |||
| Wolfram Language | Symbolic language | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | logic, distributed | No |
| XL | Yes | Yes | concept programming | No | ||||||
| Xojo | Application, RAD, general, web | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |||
| XPath/XQuery | Databases, data processing, scripting | Yes | tree-oriented | W3C 1999 XPath 1, 2010 XQuery 1, 2014 XPath/XQuery 3.0 | ||||||
| Zsh | Shell, scripting | Yes | Yes | loadable modules | No |
Type systems
Failsafe I/O and system calls
Most programming languages will print an error message or throw an exception if an input/output operation or other system call (e.g., chmod, kill) fails, unless the programmer has explicitly arranged for different handling of these events. Thus, these languages fail safely in this regard.
Some (mostly older) languages require that the programmer explicitly add checks for these kinds of errors. Psychologically, different cognitive biases (e.g., optimism bias) may affect novice and experts alike and these omissions can lead to erroneous behavior.
| Language | Failsafe I/O |
|---|---|
| 1C:Enterprise | Yes |
| Ada | Yes (exceptions) |
| ALGOL | Yes (exceptions or return value depending on function) |
| AutoHotkey | No (global ErrorLevel must be explicitly checked) |
| Bash | Optional[FSIO 1] |
| Ballerina | Yes |
| Bro | Yes |
| C | No[FSIO 2] |
| C++ | Some (STL iostreams throw on failure but C APIs like stdio or POSIX do not)[FSIO 2] |
| C# | Yes |
| COBOL | No |
| Common Lisp | Yes ("conditions and restarts" system) |
| Curry | Yes |
| D | Yes (throwing on failure) [FSIO 3] |
| Eiffel | No – It actually depends on the library and it is not defined by the language |
| Erlang | Yes |
| Fortran | Yes |
| GLBasic | No – Will generally cause program to crash |
| Go | Yes (unless result explicitly ignored) |
| Gosu | Yes |
| Harbour | Yes |
| Haskell | Yes |
| ISLISP | Yes |
| Java | Yes |
| Julia | Yes |
| Kotlin | Yes |
| LabVIEW | Yes |
| Lua | No (some functions do not warn or throw exceptions) |
| Mathematica | Yes |
| Object Pascal | Some |
| Objective-C | Yes (exceptions) |
| OCaml | Yes (exceptions) |
| OpenLisp | Yes |
| Perl | No[FSIO 4] |
| PHP | Yes |
| Python | Yes |
| Raku | Yes |
| Rebol | Yes |
| Rexx | Yes (with optional signal on... trap handling) |
| RPG | No |
| Ruby | Yes |
| Rust | Yes (unless result explicitly ignored) |
| S | Unknown |
| Smalltalk | Yes |
| Scala | Yes[FSIO 5] |
| Standard ML | Yes |
| Swift ≥ 2.0 | Yes (exceptions) |
| Tcl | Yes |
| Visual Basic | Yes |
| Visual Basic .NET | Yes |
| Visual Prolog | Yes |
| Wolfram Language | Yes |
| Xojo | Yes |
| XPath/XQuery | Yes (exceptions) |
| Language | Failsafe I/O |
-
set -eenables termination if any unchecked exit status is nonzero. - gcc can warn on unchecked errno. Newer versions of Visual Studio usually throw exceptions on failed I/O when using stdio.
- https://dlang.org/phobos/std_stdio.html
- Considerable error checking can be enabled optionally, but by default Perl is not failsafe.
- Scala runs on the Java Virtual Machine from which it inherits the runtime exception handling.
Expressiveness
| Language | Statements ratio[41] | Lines ratio[42] |
|---|---|---|
| C | 1 | 1 |
| C++ | 2.5 | 1 |
| Fortran | 2 | 0.8 |
| Java | 2.5 | 1.5 |
| Perl | 6 | 6 |
| Smalltalk | 6 | 6.25 |
| Python | 6 | 6.5 |
The literature on programming languages contains an abundance of informal claims about their relative expressive power, but there is no framework for formalizing such statements nor for deriving interesting consequences.[43] This table provides two measures of expressiveness from two different sources. An additional measure of expressiveness, in GZip bytes, can be found on the Computer Language Benchmarks Game.[44]
Benchmarks
Benchmarks are designed to mimic a particular type of workload on a component or system. The computer programs used for compiling some of the benchmark data in this section may not have been fully optimized, and the relevance of the data is disputed. The most accurate benchmarks are those that are customized to your particular situation. Other people's benchmark data may have some value to others, but proper interpretation brings many challenges. The Computer Language Benchmarks Game site warns against over-generalizing from benchmark data, but contains a large number of micro-benchmarks of reader-contributed code snippets, with an interface that generates various charts and tables comparing specific programming languages and types of tests.[45]
Timeline of specific language comparisons
- 1974 – Comparative Notes on Algol 68 and PL/I[46] – S. H. Valentine – November 1974
- 1976 – Evaluation of ALGOL 68, JOVIAL J3B, Pascal, Simula 67, and TACPOL Versus TINMAN – Requirements for a Common High Order Programming Language.
- 1977 – A comparison of PASCAL and ALGOL 68[47] – Andrew S. Tanenbaum – June 1977.
- 1993 – Five Little Languages and How They Grew – BLISS, Pascal, ALGOL 68, BCPL & C – Dennis M. Ritchie – April 1993.
- 2009 – On Go – oh, go on – How well will Google's Go stand up against Brand X programming language? – David Given – November 2009
See also
| To display all pages, subcategories and images click on the "►": |
|---|
▼ Lists of programming languages (19 P) |
- Comparison of basic instructions of programming languages
- Comparison of programming languages (syntax)
- Comparison of programming paradigms
- Comparison of integrated development environments
- Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages
- Measuring programming language popularity
- TIOBE index
References
- As of May 2006 Diarmuid Pigott's Encyclopedia of Computer Languages Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine hosted at Murdoch University, Australia lists 8512 computer languages.
- Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
- Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
- Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
- Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
- Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
- "Vak.ru" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-30. Retrieved 2008-08-09.
- ISO 1538:1984
- "Vak.ru" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-24. Retrieved 2008-08-09.
- IEEE 694-1985
- Objects - Definition & Usage
- "Ballerina Language Specification" (PDF). WSO2. 2018-05-01. Retrieved 2018-05-03.
- POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities, Command Interpreter (IEEE Std 1003.2-1992.)
- JSR 274
- bell-labs.com
- ANSI C89, ISO/IEC 9899:1990, 1999, 2011, 2018
- ISO/IEC 14882:1998, 2003, 2011, 2014, 2017
- Codeproject.com: Functional Programming in C# 3.0 using Lambda Expression
- ECMA-334; ISO/IEC 23270:2006
- Softvelocity.com
- https://github.com/crystal-lang/crystal#why
- https://github.com/crystal-lang/crystal#status
- Basic Eiffel language mechanisms
- Closure (computer programming)
- ECMA-367; ISO/IEC 25436:2006
- The Go Programming Language (FAQ)
- JSR 241
- "The Haskell 2010 Language Report". Retrieved 2011-12-07. Most Haskell implementations extend the Haskell 2010 standard.
- "M8 is out!".
As a first peek into the future reflective capabilities of Kotlin, you can now access properties as first-class objects in Kotlin
- POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities, Command Interpreter (IEEE Std 1003.2-1992.)
- "De facto" reference is the Second Life implementation of LSL. Halcyon (Inworldz) and Open Sims propose compatible implementations with additionnal functions
- Lua doesn't have explicit "object" type (more general type of "table" is used for object definition), but does have explicit syntax for object method calling
- Version releases are accompanied with a definitive Lua Reference Manual showing full syntax and semantics; a reference implementation, and a test suite. These are used to generate other Lua VM implementations and compilers such as Kahlua and LLVM-Lua.
- ISO/IEC 10514-1:1996
- ISO 7185
- PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5),
- PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
- "PostScript Language Reference Manual" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-18. Retrieved 2017-02-18.
- Is Rust an Object-Oriented Programming Language?
- SMLNJ.org
- Data from Code Complete. p. 100. The Statements ratio column "shows typical ratios of source statements in several high-level languages to the equivalent code in C. A higher ratio means that each line of code in the language listed accomplishes more than does each line of code in C.
- The ratio of line count tests won by each language to the number won by C when using the Compare to feature at Jon McLoone (November 14, 2012). "Code Length Measured in 14 Languages". Archived from the original on 2012-11-19. C gcc was used for C, C++ g++ was used for C++, FORTRAN G95 was used for FORTRAN, Java JDK Server was used for Java, and Smalltalk GST was used for Smalltalk.
- Felleisen, Matthias. On the Expressive Power of Programming Languages. ESOP '90 3rd European Symposium on Programming. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.51.4656.
- "How programs are measured | Computer Language Benchmarks Game". benchmarksgame-team.pages.debian.net/benchmarksgame. Retrieved 2018-05-29.
- "The Ultimate Benchmark | The Computer Language Benchmarks Game". benchmarksgame-team.pages.debian.net/benchmarksgame. Retrieved 2018-05-29.
- Valentine, S. H. (November 1974). "Comparative Notes on Algol 68 and PL/I". The Computer Journal. 17 (4): 325–331. doi:10.1093/comjnl/17.4.325.
- http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/2609/1/11054.pdf
Further reading
- Cezzar, Ruknet (1995). A Guide to Programming Languages: Overview and Comparison. ISBN 978-0-89006-812-0.
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