Condor Legion

In the years following the Spanish Civil War, Hitler gave several possible motives for German involvement. Among these were the distraction it provided from German re-militarisation; the prevention of the spread of communism to Western Europe; the creation of a state friendly to Germany to disrupt Britain and France; and the possibilities for economic expansion.[3] Although the offensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937, a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas was supported by Germany; despite prolonging the Civil War, it would help to distract the other western powers from Hitler's ambitions in central Europe.[17] The offensive on Vizcaya, a mining and industrial centre, would help fuel German industry.[18] On 27 June 1937, Hitler (in a speech at Würzburg) declared he supported Franco to gain control of Spanish ore.[19]

Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937. Germany was keen to avoid prompting a Europe-wide war, which at the time they felt committing further resources to Spain would do.[20] Contradictory views were held by German officials: Ernst von Weizsäcker suggested it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal; Göring stated that Germany would never recognise a "red Spain". A joint Italian–German decision, that the last shipments would be made by the start of February, was agreed.[20]

It has been speculated that Hitler used the Spanish Civil War issue to distract Benito Mussolini from Hitler's own plans to annex Austria. The authoritarian, Catholic, and anti-Nazi Vaterländische Front government of autonomous Austria had been allied with Mussolini, and in 1934 the assassination of Austria's authoritarian president Engelbert Dollfuss had already successfully invoked Italian military assistance in case of a German invasion.[21]

A communiqué in December 1936 from Ulrich von Hassell, the German ambassador in Rome, illustrates another point:

The role played by the Spanish conflict as regards Italy's relations with France and England could be similar to that of the Abyssinian conflict, bringing out clearly the actual, opposing interests of the powers and thus preventing Italy from being drawn into the net of the Western powers and used for their machinations. [...] All the more clearly will Italy recognize the advisability of confronting the Western powers shoulder to shoulder with Germany.

The isolated area of Vizcaya, a predominantly Basque part of northern Spain, was the most immediate target, in what was called the War in the North.[18] It was largely a Nationalist and Italian offensive, but was supported by a consistently re-equipping Condor Legion.[35] The terrain was favourable, with the planes coming over a range of mountains to the south, masking their entrance.[18] Sperrle remained in Salamanca; Wolfram von Richthofen replaced Holle in January as deputy and in actual command.[18] Since the Basque air force was very limited, even fighters were used in ground-attack roles. The Legion's air force initially attacked the towns of Ochandiano and Durango.[36] Durango had no anti-aircraft defence, and only minor other defences. According to the Basques, 250 civilians died on the 31 March, including the priest, nuns and congregation of a church ceremony.[36][37] The Germans, with their air raids, were hated.[38] The Basque ground forces were in full retreat towards Bilbao, through the town of Guernica, which was attacked on 26 April in one of the most controversial attacks of the Spanish Civil War.[37]

Ruins of Guernica (1937)

In Operation Rügen, waves of Ju 52 and He 111 planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica. The number of casualties is a matter of controversy, with perhaps 200–300 people killed;[39] the number reported dead by the Basques was 1,654 dead and 889 wounded.[37][40] Several explanations were put forward by the Nationalists, including blaming the attack on the Republicans,[41] that the attack on the town had been a prolonged offensive, or that the Rentería bridge, outside Guernica, was the true target. However, the nature of the operation itself, including the formation and armaments used, makes this seem unlikely. Guernica was a clear target of the Condor Legion, rather than the Nationalists as a whole.[42][43] The offensive on Bilbao, when it eventually came on 11 July, was supported by ground units of the Condor Legion, and extensive air operations. It proved the worth of the Condor Legion to the Nationalist cause.[44]

The first English-language media reports of the destruction in Guernica appeared two days later. George Steer, a reporter for The Times, who was covering the Spanish Civil War from inside the country, wrote the first full account of events. Steer's reporting set the tone for much of the subsequent reportage. Steer pointed out the clear German complicity in the action.[nb 4] The evidence of three small bomb cases stamped with the German Imperial Eagle made clear that the official German position of neutrality in the Civil War and the signing of a Non-Intervention Pact were only nominal and that German forces were participating in the war. Steer's report was syndicated to the New York Times and then worldwide, generating widespread shock, outrage, and fear.

The Condor Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete, designed as a Republican offensive to take the pressure off northern Spain, where fighting was ongoing.[44] The Legion was sent from the north to reinforce the broken line.[45] There were repeated raids on Republican armoured vehicles and later defensive positions by both bombers and fighters based at Salamanca.[46] Republican aircraft were ineffective, despite Nationalist fears, compared with German aircraft; the Messerschmitt Bf 109 was shown to be superior to the I-15 and I-16 models used by Republican forces.[47] The Legion lost 8 aircraft, but claimed 18 victories. German tactics were also improved with the experience of Brunete, particularly the en masse use of tanks by the Nationalists.[48]

The Nationalists returned to focus on the capture of northern Spain. German test aircraft, with latest models, faced an outdated Basque air force, although it did have some Russian planes.[49] Heavy aerial bombardment from 200 Nationalist, German and Italian planes was used far behind Basque lines in August 1937, leading to the fall of Santander after the Battle of Santander on 1 September.[48] The formal battle in Asturias ended with the fall of Gijon on 21 October. A large amount of ammunitions had been used by the Legion, including a million machine gun rounds and 2,500 tonnes of bombs.[48] Germany immediately began to ship industrial production back to Germany.[50] Sperrle argued repeatedly with Faupel, and against HISMA's monopoly. Faupel was replaced by Franco, through Sperrle.[51] Sperrle also returned to Germany and was replaced by Hellmuth Volkmann;[51] following disagreements with Volkmann, Von Richthofen would be replaced with Hermann Plocher in early 1938.[50]

Junkers Ju 87A with Condor Legion markings

Whilst the next major campaign – Madrid or Barcelona – was discussed, the Condor Legion was moved to Soria and began a week of strikes against Republican airfields, halted by the Republican advance on Teruel and the ensuing Battle of Teruel.[52] Both the Legion's land and air forces were used, and the Legion moved to Bronchales. Poor weather resulted in few flights, and the town fell to Republican forces on 6 January.[53] Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalist's counter-offensive through the Alfambra valley. The Junkers Ju 87A was used for the first time on the advance on Teruel, which was retaken on 22 February.[53] The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April–June 1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces.[53] The Legion was switched to focus in the north, towards the Segre river, before moving south again following Nationalist successes.[54] The Legion moved its main headquarters to Benicarló; single-engined planes operated from airfields nearby, and twin-engined planes from Zaragoza.[54] Hitler's words to his colleagues belied a change in attitude about the war in Germany – that a quick victory in the war was not desirable, a mere continuation of the war would be preferable.[55] German policy would be to prevent a Republican defeat.[56] However, casualties were beginning to mount for the Legion and, combined with a resurgence in Republican air activity, the Nationalist advance stalled. This was, perhaps, because of the reluctance of commanders in Germany to supply reinforcements, with the Czechoslovakia crisis mounting.[54] Arguments over the bill to the Germans – now rising at 10 million Reichmarks a month – continued, unresolved.[57] The Legion's materiel had been exhausted.[58]

On 24–25 July, Republican forces launched the last major offensive of the war, the Battle of the Ebro. Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion had noticed a troop build-up, and warned Nationalists forces. The warning went unheeded.[59] Although the Republicans gained ground, they failed to gain control of Gandesa, with 422 sorties by the Legion (with around 70 aircraft operational) having considerable effect. The rest of the battle saw a series of attacks using artillery or air strikes, followed by a Nationalist ground advance.[59] However, tensions in Czechoslovakia and a shortage of pilots in Germany led to the return of 250 pilots from the Legion, around half of them being bomber crews. Although trained Spaniards made up some of the shortfall, Volkmann complained to central command in Berlin, which would lead to his recall in September.[60] During the battle, which saw 113 days of fighting, only 10 aircraft were lost (some by accident) and 14 were badly damaged; the Legion claimed around 100 Republican aircraft, a third of those lost. Only 5 aircrew had been killed, and 6 captured.[60] Aid from Germany temporarily halted in mid-September.[61] Germany and Nationalist Spain settled the issue of German interests in Spanish mines.[62]

The Legion took a short break from active duty to receive new aircraft, including Bf 109Es, He 111Es and Js, and Hs 126As, bringing its strength to 96 aircraft, around a fifth of the Nationalist's force as a whole. Von Richthofen returned to Spain in overall command, with Hans Seidemann as chief of staff.[63] This reinforcement may have been the single most important intervention by a foreign side in the war, enabling a counterattack after the Battle of the Ebro.[62] It mainly took part in operations against the remaining Republican air force during January–February 1939, with considerable success.[64] After it took part in parades in Barcelona and elsewhere, and minor duties over Madrid, it was rapidly dissolved.[65] The men returned on 26 May; the best aircraft were returned to Germany and the rest of the equipment bought by the new Spanish regime.[66]

The Condor Legion claimed to have destroyed 320 Republican planes using aircraft (either shot down or bombed on the ground), and shot down another 52 using anti-aircraft guns.[67] They also claimed to have destroyed 60 ships, including Spanish Republican Navy vessels. They lost 72 aircraft due to hostile action, and another 160 to accidents.[68]

The Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel 88 (German: Aufklärungsstaffel See 88) was the Condor Legion's maritime unit under the command of Karl Heinz Wolff. Operating independently of the land-based division, it acted against enemy shipping, ports, coastal communications and occasionally inland targets such as bridges.[68] It used floatplanes, starting with the Heinkel He 60, which began operating at Cadiz in October 1936.[68] Missions started as reconnaissance but, following the move from Cadiz to Melilla in Spanish Morocco in December 1936, the focus shifted to attacks on shipping.[69] It was again moved in February 1937 to Málaga, newly captured, and then to Majorca when Málaga proved unsuitable.[69] Beginning in June, operations were expanded to allow attacks on all Republican ports, as long as British ships were not present. 10 ships were attacked in the second half of 1937; however, the Norwegian torpedoes being used proved ineffective, and strafing or bombing targets was used instead.[69]

The arrival of Martin Harlinghausen (known as "Iron Gustav") saw operations expand, and operations targeted Alicante, Almería, Barcelona and Cartagena. As naval activity declined, inland targets became more numerous, and night missions began.[69] Activities in support of ground forces became the main focus of the unit until the end of hostilities. Both Wolff and Harlinghausen received the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds.[70] In total, eleven men were killed in action, and five others died due to accident or illness.[70]

Overtly, the Kriegsmarine was partly used to enforce the Non-Intervention Agreement from interfering in the Civil War. However, this agreement was clearly broken by Germany.[71] As a result, the German pocket battleship Deutschland stood guard over Ceuta to prevent interference from Republican ships while Franco transported troops to the Spanish mainland.[72] By mid-October, the German North Sea Group around Spain consisted of the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer, the light cruiser Köln, and four torpedo boats. After the Germans claimed that Leipzig had been attacked by an unidentified submarine, it was formally withdrawn from international patrols.[73]

Operation Ursula (named after the daughter of Karl Dönitz) saw a group of German U-boats active around Spain.[74] It began on 20 November 1936, with the movement of the U-33 and U-34 from Wilhelmshaven. Any identification marks were obscured, and the whole mission was kept secret.[74] Difficulties in identifying legitimate targets and concerns about discovery limited their operations.[75] During their return to Wilhelmshaven in December, the Republican submarine C-3 was sunk; the Germans claimed this was due to a torpedo fired from U-34, although the Republicans' enquiry claimed its loss was due to an internal explosion. Their return marked the official end of Operation Ursula.[75] However, it does seem that further submarines were sent in mid-1937, but details of the operation are not known; six are believed to have been involved.[75]

The German Intelligence service, the Abwehr, working independently of the Condor Legion was secretly involved in Operation Bodden. This was to later play a part in the detection of the Operation Torch invasion fleet.[nb 5]

"Condor Legion" infantry training school in Ávila, Spain.

It is known that the leaders of the Army were hesitant about becoming involved in the conflict, and resisted a call made by the Italian government for a dual transfer of ground troops to fight in Spain. The involvement of the Luftwaffe, however, was not entirely restricted and a commonly held viewpoint is that the involvement of the Luftwaffe in the Civil War constituted a proving ground for troops employed later during World War II. This view is supported by the testimony of Hermann Göring, when on trial at Nuremberg. When asked about the decision to use the Luftwaffe, Göring states:

When the Civil War broke out in Spain, Franco sent a call for help to Germany and asked for support, particularly in the air. One should not forget that Franco with his troops was stationed in Africa and that he could not get the troops across, as the fleet was in the hands of the Communists, or, as they called themselves at the time, the competent Revolutionary Government in Spain. The decisive factor was, first of all, to get his troops over to Spain. The Führer thought the matter over. I urged him to give support [to Franco] under all circumstances, firstly, in order to prevent the further spread of communism in that theater and, secondly, to test my young Luftwaffe at this opportunity in this or that technical respect.[76][nb 6]

This was also a view put forth in western media following the disengagement of German forces from Spain.[77]

Dozens of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and Heinkel He 111 medium bombers, and from December 1937, at least three Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers, first saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied aircraft. The Stuka's first mission flown in Spain was February 1938. Each of these aircraft played a major role during the early years of the Second World War. The Germans also realized that biplane fighters were quickly becoming less effective when compared to newer monoplane designs. The Heinkel He 51 fighter, after suffering many losses during the first 12 months of the conflict, was switched to a ground attack role and later saw service as a trainer.

The Condor Legion also included non-aircraft units. Panzer crews operating Panzer I light tanks were commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma. The Germans also tested small numbers of 88 mm Flak 18 anti-aircraft artillery guns which they used to destroy Republican tanks and fortifications with direct fire, as well as enemy aircraft in their designed role.

German involvement in Spain also saw the development of the first air ambulance service for evacuation of wounded combatants.[nb 7]

Bf 109 C-1, Jagdgruppe 88, Legion Condor

One important factor in World War II which is thought to have directly resulted from the conflict is the technical development of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The V3 – V6 types entered service in Spain directly from operational trials around January 1937. In the spring of 1938 these were joined by type C aircraft with type Es being first fielded in December 1938.

Alongside the potential for gains in combat experience it is also thought that various strategic initiatives were first trialed as part of Luftwaffe involvement in the conflict. As the fighting progressed into March 1938 Italian pilots under Fieldmarshal Hugo Sperrle were involved in thirteen raids against Barcelona involving fire and gas bombs. These particular raids resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians. It is worth noting that a subsequent commander of the Legion in Spain, Wolfram von Richthofen was to become heavily involved in the operation of the Luftwaffe as part of Operation Barbarossa.

Tactics of combined or joint operations were a particular focus. Close air support for Nationalist troops, attack bombing of Republican troop concentrations, and strafing became features of the war. The Legion worked closely in missions which maximized the fighting ability of the Nationalist air force and troops, the Italian CTV, and pilots from the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air Force). German Air ace Adolf Galland was to claim after World War II that although there was a focus on taking lessons from the conflict in Spain, he believed the wrong conclusions were drawn by the German High Command with particular respect to the Luftwaffe:

Whatever may have been the importance of the tests of German arms in the Spanish Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, they did not provide the experience that was needed nor lead to the formulation of sound strategic concepts.

• Thomas, Hugh (1961). The Spanish Civil War (1 ed.). London: Eyre and Spottiswoode.
• Westwell, Ian (2004). Condor Legion: The Wehrmacht's Training Ground. Spearhead. 15. Ian Allan publishing. ISBN 978-0-7110-3043-5.