Dʰéǵʰōm

Dʰéǵʰōm (Proto-Indo-European: *dʰéǵʰōm, also ‌‌*dʰg-em; lit. 'earth'),[1][2] or Pleth₂wih₁ (PIE *pleth₂wih₁, lit. the 'Broad One'),[3][4] is the reconstructed name of the Earth-goddess in the Proto-Indo-European mythology. The Mother Earth is portrayed as the vast and dark house of mortals. She is often paired with Dyēus, the daylight sky and seat of the gods, in a relationship of union and contrast. Dʰéǵʰōm is associated with fertility and growth, but also with death as the final dwelling of the deceased.

Name

Etymology

The root for the word 'earth', *dʰéǵʰōm, is one of the most attested in Indo-European languages.[1] On the other hand, the linguistic evidence for the ritualization of the name *dʰéǵʰōm is not systematically spread across traditions, as she also appears under other names and epithets, principally *Pleth₂-wih₁ (the 'Broad One').[3] If the goddess-earth is reliably reconstructed under the name *dʰéǵʰōm, she was the Earth herself conceived as a divine entity, rather than a goddess of the earth.[5]

The Broad One

The commonest epithet applied to the earth in Indo-European poetic traditions is *Pléth₂wih₁ (the 'Broad One'; from *pléth₂us, 'flat, vast, broad'). A group of cognates appear in Prithvi, the Vedic earth-goddess, in the Greek nymph Plataia, and most likely in the Gaulish goddess Litavis.[4][6] The epithet is also attested in comparable poetic expressions associating the two roots *dʰéǵʰōm and *pléth₂wih₁: Avestan ząm pərəϑβīm ('broad earth'), Sanskrit kṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth') and Old Hittite palḫiš ... dagan(-zipaš) ('broad ... earth[-genius]').[7][8][9]

Another similar epithet is the 'All-Bearing One', the one who bears all things or creatures.[10] She was also referred to as 'much-nourishing' or 'rich-pastured' in Vedic, Greek, and Old Norse ritual expressions that share the root *plh₁u- ('much').[3]

Mother Earth

The Earth-goddess was widely celebrated with the title of 'mother', and often paired with *Dyḗus ph2tḗr, the 'sky-father'. She is called annas Daganzipas ('Mother Earth-spirit') in Hittite liturgy, and paired with the Storm-god of heaven, as well as Mat' Syra Zemlya ('Mother Moist Earth') in the Russian epic poems. To the goddess of the earth Prithvi is often attached the epithet Mata ('mother') in the Rigveda, especially when she is mentioned together with Dyaus, the sky-father.[11]

Slip in to this Mother Earth, the wide-extending Broad One, the friendly...

— 10.18.10, in The Rigveda, translated by M. L. West.[12]

The goddess of the harvest and agriculture Demeter could also be a cognate, deriving from an Illyrian root Dā- (possibly from *dʰǵʰ(e)m-) attached to māter ('mother').[11] The Roman evidence for the idea of Earth as a mother is doubtful, as it is usually associated with the name Terra rather than Tellus, and may be influenced by Greek motifs.[13] The Anglo-Saxon goddess Erce (possibly 'bright, pure') is called the 'mother of Earth' (and likely identified with Mother Earth herself) in a ritual to be performed on plough-land that is unfruitful.[11] She is also called Fīra Mōdor ('Mother of men') in Old English poetry.[5] The Baltic goddess Zemyna is likewise associated with the epithets 'Mother of the Fields' and 'Mother of the Forests'.[14]

A similar epithet is ascribed to Gaia, as Μητηρ Παντων (Mother of All), recorded, for instance, in Aeschylus' Prometheus Unbound (παμμῆτόρ τε γῆ; "Oh! universal mother Earth"),[15] and in The Libation Bearers (ἰὼ γαῖα μαῖα; Mother Gaia).[16] In a Samaveda hymn dedicated to the Vedic fire god Agni, he is described as "rapidly ... [moving] along his mother earth".[17] In an Atharveda Hymn (12.1) (Pṛthvī Sūkta, or Bhūmī Sūkta), the celebrant invokes Prithvi as his Mother, because he is "a son of Earth".[18] The word bhūmi is also used as an epithet of Prithvi meaning 'soil' and in reference to a threefold division of the universe in heavens, sky and earth.[19][20][21] On her own, Bhūmi is another Vedic deity with Mother-Earth attributes.[22][23][24]

Dark Earth

A Proto-Indo-European epithet, reconstructed as *dʰéǵʰōm dʰṇgu-/dʰengwo- ('dark earth'), is also attested in several traditions.[7] The formula dankuiš daganzipaš ('dark genius of the earth') is frequent in Hittite literature; it was used especially to name the underworld, but sometimes also the earth's surface.[25][10][7] Other reflexes are found in Greek γαîα μέλαινα / Gaia Melaina ('black earth'), in Albanian dhe të zi ('black earth'), in Slavonic *črnā(yā) zemyā ('dark earth') or in Old Irish domun donn ('brown earth').[10][26] A Lithuanian expression takes the form "may the black earth not support me".[27] In a Russian fairy tale, the maiden is buried "under a blanket of black earth".[28] In Latvian dainas about plant fertility, the color black symbolized a good and abundant harvest; and the black soil was considered the most fertile.[29]

The formula of the dark earth seems to be related to invocation or oaths, where the announcer summons the Earth as an observer or witness, as seen by Solon's elegiac Fragment 36.[30] The Slavic deity 'Moist Earth' (Syra Zemlya) is also invoked during oaths and called to witness in land disputes.[31]

Role

Mating of Earth Mother and Sky Father

In the Indo-European cosmology, the earth Dʰéǵʰōm was perceived as a vast, flat and circular continent surrounded by waters ('The Ocean'),[6] and the Earth goddess as the dark dwelling of mortals, in contrast with Dyēus, the bright diurnal sky and the seat of the gods.[10] The Earth and Heaven couple is however not at the origin of the other gods, as the Divine Twins and Hausos were probably conceived by Dyēus alone.[32] According to Jackson however, Dʰéǵʰōm is "a more fitting partner of Perkwunos than of Dyēus", since the former is associated with the fructifying rains as a weather god.[3]

Both deities often appear as a pair, the Sky Father (*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr) uniting with Mother Earth (*Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr) to bring fertility.[12][33] In the Vedic texts, Prithvi the mother is usually paired with Dyaus the father,[34][12] as shown for instance in Samaveda hymns.[35][36] In an Atharveda Hymn (12.1), Prithvi is coupled with Parjanya (Sanskrit: पर्जन्य, parjánya), a deity of rain and fertilizer of earth.[37][38] According to Herodotus, the Scythians considered Earth to be the wife of Zeus.[39] In Hittite mythology, the Storm God of Heaven, one of the most important in the Hittite pantheon,[40] has been syncretized with local Anatolian or Hattian deities, merging with a local storm god with terrestrial characteristics. At a later point, the Storm God of Heaven was paired with local goddess Wurulemu, with chthonic traits.[41] In a Russian incantation (Beschwörungsformel), heaven and earth are referred as a father/mother pair: Ty nebo otec; ty zemlja mat'. ("You Heaven are father; you Earth are mother").[42]

Zeus is associated with Semele, a possible descendant of Dʰéǵʰōm, but also with Demeter, which could be another cognate stemming from the Mother Earth.[39][5] In the Danaids, Aeschylus describes how Ouranos and Chthôn are seized by a mutual desire for sexual intercourse: the rain falls, then Earth conceives and brings forth pasture, cereal crops, and foliage.[39] Likewise, "Heaven and Earth" regularly appear as a duo among deities invoked as witnesses to Hittite treaties, and the Roman Tellus Mater is paired with Jupiter in Macrobius's Saturnalia.[12]

The mating of Zeus and female characters with chthonic elements (Démeter) or associated with earth (such as Semele, Plataia and Themis) may be a remnant of the Sky/Earth coupling.[39] Other religious expressions and formulas in Greek cultic practice attest to a wedding or union between a sky-god and an earth-mother: the Homeric Hymn to Gaia calls her "Wife of Starry Ouranos";[43] weddings in Athens were dedicated to both Ouranos and Gaia;[44] an Orphic hymn tells that the cultist is both "a child of Earth and starry Sky";[45] in Athens, there was a statue of Gaia on the Acropolis depicting her beseeching Zeus for rain;[46] in the cosmogony of Pherecydes of Syros, male deity Zas (identified with Zeus and the celestial/heavenly heights) unites with female character Chthonie (associated with the earth and the subterranean depths) in sacred rites of marriage, a union that appears to hark back to "the theology of the rites of fertility-fecundity"[47] and lays the foundation of the cosmos.[48]

In Norse Mythology, the goddess Jörd, a jötunn (giantess) whose name means 'earth' (from Proto-Germanic *erþō-, 'earth, soil, land'), begets the thunder-god Thor (Donar) with Odinn–not a sky-god, although a chief god of the Norse pantheon.[49] A line in the Gylfaginning by Norse poet Snorri Sturluson mentions that the Earth is both daughter and wife ("Jörðin var dóttir hans ok kona hans") of the All-Father,[50] identified as Odinn.

Final dwelling of mortals

The word for 'earth' underlies the many formations for designating humans as mortals, either because they are 'earthly' or because they were fashioned from the earth itself.[51] It is attested in descendent cognates of the derivative form *dʰǵʰ-men, as in Sanskrit jmán ('from the earth'), Latin homō ('man'), Germanic *guman- ('man'), Lithuanian žmuõ ('man')[52] and Old Prussian smoy ('man'),[53][54] and possibly in the Gaulish Xtonion (*gdonion?)[55][56][57] and (Neo-)Phrygian ζεµελως (Zemelōs).[58] This suggests a hierarchical conception of the status of mankind regarding the gods, confirmed by the widespread use of the term 'mortal' as a synonym of 'human' rather than 'living species' in Indo-European traditions.[59]

In a Hittite military oath, the earth is said to drink the blood of the fallen ("This not wine, it is your blood, and as the earth has swallowed this..."), as in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes (736) and in the Indian Mahabharata ("... the earth shall drink today the blood of their king").[60] Another reflex of Dʰéǵʰōm as the mother of mortals and their final resting place may also be found in Demetrioi ('of Demeter'), an Athenian designation for the dead,[61] and in Aeschylus's verses in Choephori 127: "Yea, summon Earth, who brings all things to life, / And rears and takes again into her womb."[62][63]

In addition, historical sources on Baltic mythology, specially on Lithuanian and Latvian religions and practices, describe the dual role of goddesses Zemyna and Zemes Mate: while they were connected to the fertility of the land, they were also associated with receiving the dead and acting as their ruler and guardian.[64][lower-alpha 1] Pieces of Lithuanian folklore also make references to Earth as mother of humans and their final abode after death.[67]

Old Slavic beliefs seem to attest some awareness of this ambivalent nature of the Earth: it was considered men's cradle and nurturer during one's lifetime, and, when the time of death came, it would open up to receive their bones, as if it were a "return to the womb".[68]

Dʰéǵʰōm had a connection with both death and life, as the deceased shall return to her and the crop grows from her moist soil, fertilized by the rain of Dyēus.[69] The Earth is thus portrayed as the giver of good things: she is exhorted to become pregnant in an Old English prayer and Slavic peasants described Zemlja, Mother Earth, as a prophetess that shall offer favourable harvest to the community.[5][39] The unions of Zeus with Semele and Demeter is similarly associated with fertility and growth in Greek mythology.[39]

Evidence

*Dʰéǵʰōm

Cognates stemming from the root *dʰéǵʰōm are attested in the following mythologies:

Other cognates are less secured:

Jove and Semele (1695) by Sebastiano Ricci.
  • Thracian: Zemelā (possibly from *gʰem-elā); with a cognate in the Greek goddess Semele,[31][5][lower-alpha 5][lower-alpha 6] and the obscure Dionysian epithet Semeleios[101] (Semeleius or Semelēus),[102] meaning 'He of the Earth', 'son of Semele'.[103][104][105][106]
  • Messapic: Damatura, from dā- (possibly from *dʰǵʰ(e)m-) attached to matura ('mother'); maybe at the origin of the Greek goddess Demeter.[107]
  • Greek: Damia, one of the Horae, a minor deity related to spring, growth and vegetation, and usually paired with fellow Horae Auxesia.[108][109] Ancient literature suggests it might have been another name for Demeter.[110][111]
  • Khotanese: evidence suggests that the Khotanese preserved some relics of an Indo-Iranian worship of the earth, as seen in the Saka roots ysam- and ysama-, both meaning 'earth' and cognate to Avestan zam-.[112] The word is also attested in the personal name Ysamotika,[113] and in the religious expression ysamaśśandaā, meaning world.[114][115][116]
  • Tocharian: the expression tkamñkät (Tocharian A) and keṃ-ñäkte (Tocharian B) are used in religious Buddhist texts written in the Tocharian languages, where it denotes the earth or an 'earth-god' of some sort.[117][118][119]
  • Old Irish: goddess Dana, taken by some Indo-Europeanist scholars to be an Irish earth goddess.[120][121]
  • Phrygian: the epithet ΓΔΑΝ ΜΑ (Gdan Ma), taken to mean 'Earth Mother',[122] or a loan from Anatolian languages.[120][123] However, the name appears as a compound in names of Asia Minor written in the Greek alphabet.[124] Phrygian also attests the word KTON as referring to the earth.[125]
  • Italic: Semonia, obscure deity associated with crops and sowing,[126] of possible Roman or Sabine origin and worship, usually attested with the epithet Salus Semonia.[127] A possible male counterpart is Semo Sancus,[128] god of Sabine provenance whose traits merged with Dius Fidius's. Semonia and Sancus appear with other agricultural/crop deities Seia and Segetia.[129]
  • Lydian: references to a cult of Men Tiamou ('of Tiamos') led scholars to believe Tiamou is an epithet that means 'of the Earth' or 'of the Netherworld', possibly connected to Luwian tiyamm(i) 'earth'.[130] This expression would be equivalent to a common epithet of Men: καταχθονιος ('of the Underworld'; 'subterranean').[131][132][133]
  • Lithuanian: Žemėpatis[134][135] and Žemininkas,[136] male deities associated with cattle, agriculture and the fertility of the land. Their names are present in historical records of the Lithuanian non-Christian faith by foreign missionaries.[137] A male divinity with the name Zemeluks, Zamoluksei,[138] Zameluks or Ziameluks[139][140] is also said to be attested. An account tells he is a DEUS TERRAE ('earth god'),[141] while in other he is "a lord or god of earth who was buried in the earth" by the Prussians.[142]

Additionally, remnants of the root *dʰéǵʰōm can be found in formulaic phrases and religious epithets:

  • Vedic: the compound Dyāvākṣamā, ('heaven and earth'), with the root kṣamā associated with the earth goddess Prithvi (the 'Broad One').[31]
  • Greek: the epithets χαμύνη (khamyne (de), 'of the land'), in reference to Deméter[lower-alpha 7] (in Pausanias 6.21.1),[144][145][146] and Χαμοναῖα (khamynaia, 'on the ground').[147][148] A designation Χαμοναῖος (khamonaïos, 'of the ground'; 'of the earth') in reference to Zeus, is also attested.[149][150] These epithets are considered cognates to χαμαί (khamaí, 'pertaining, belonging to the earth').[144][151][152]

*Pleth₂wih₁

Cognates stemming from the epithet *Pleth₂wih₁ (the 'Broad One') are attested in the following traditions:

Other cognates are less secured:

See also

Footnotes
  1. Best exemplified by mythologist Lotte Motz: "The chthonic goddess zemes mate (Mother Earth) receives the dead within her realm. In dainas addressed to her, she provides the eternal resting place: "Rock me mother, hold me mother! / Short is the time spent at your breast. / Mother Earth will hold me longer, / beneath her turf, a welcome guest." (J1209)".[65] She also stated that "In Latvian society ... Mother Earth - zemes mate - is chiefly the resting place of the departed, ..."[66]
  2. Recorded alternate names for her are Žemynėlė and Žemelė.[84]
  3. The word siera means the color 'gray' in Lithuanian, and scholarship suggests it is phonetically - not semantically - close to Russian syra 'wet, moist'. However, it is also acknowledged that the expression "gray earth" may still indicate the fertility of the land by referring to a combination of the elements of earth and water (humidity). Works that contain this expression have been collected from eastern and southern Lithuania.[87]
  4. Invoked as the celebrant's mother: Syraja zemlja, - ty ž maty moja ("Moist Earth, you are my mother").[90]
  5. Etymological connections of "Thraco-Phrygian" Semele with Žemele and Žemyna have been noted.[99]
  6. Ivan Duridanov pointed out that the Phrygian word zemelō also meant "Mother Earth".[100]
  7. Another possibility is that Khamyne was herself, in fact, a separate deity who was syncrethized with Demeter in later times. Her temple was discovered in 2006, 150 metres away from the main stadium.[143]

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Bibliography

Further reading
  • Bodewitz, Henk (2019). "The Waters in Vedic Cosmic Classifications". Vedic Cosmology and Ethics. 19. Brill. pp. 37–45. ISBN 9789004398641. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctvrxk42v.9.
  • Burrow, T. (1959). "On the Phonological History of Sanskrit kṣám- 'Earth,' ṛ́kṣa- 'Bear' and likṣá̄ 'Nit'". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 79 (2): 85–90. doi:10.2307/595849. JSTOR 595849.
  • Hamp, Eric P. (1990). "Albanian dbē 'earth'". Historische Sprachforschung. 103 (2): 289–292. JSTOR 40848998.
  • Kretschmer, Paul (1931). "Χϑών". Glotta. 20 (1/2): 65–67. JSTOR 40265301.
  • Meier-Brügger, Michael (1977). "Lateinisch humī und domī". Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung. 91 (1): 159–165. JSTOR 40848521.
  • Willi, Andreas (2007). "Demeter, Gê, and the Indo-European word(s) for 'earth'". Historische Sprachforschung. 120: 169–194. doi:10.13109/hisp.2007.120.1.169. ISSN 0935-3518. JSTOR 40849297.
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