Historical Vedic religion

The Vedic religion was the religion of some of the Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes, the aryas,[17][18][lower-alpha 2] who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent.[3][lower-alpha 3] The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from Agamic, Tantric and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to the authority of non-Vedic textual sources.[3] The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated voluminous Vedic literature including the early Upanishads, preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools.[20][3] It existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from c. 1500–1100 BCE,[21][lower-alpha 4] and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period (1100–500 BCE).[12][24] The eastern Ganges-plain was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology, and gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism, and the Mauryan Empire.[1][2]

The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family, which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes.[25][lower-alpha 3][lower-alpha 5] The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.[46]

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[47][lower-alpha 6] and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture, from which the Indo-Aryan people descended.[48] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[8] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements"[8] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[9] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture (BMAC).[9] This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[49] According to Anthony,

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[31]

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.[50] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.[50] The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.[50] Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[51][52][53]

The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".[54] White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilization.[10] The Vedic religion texts are cerebral, orderly and intellectual, but it is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion.[20]

The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,[12][55][56] further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India.[2][3] The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", state Jamison and Witzel, namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals",[57] which survives in the present-day srauta-ritual,[58] and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself,[57][59] akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.

Aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived into modern times. The Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. The complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta continue to be practiced in Kerala and coastal Andhra.[60] The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of ancient Hinduism.[58][lower-alpha 7]

According to Heinrich von Stietencron, in the 19th century, in western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. The Hindu religion was thought to be linked to the Hindu epics and the Puranas through sects based on purohita, tantras and Bhakti. In the 20th century, a better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism has led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism.[65] The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of Hinduism, but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two,[lower-alpha 1] such as the belief in an afterlife instead of the later developed reincarnation and samsāra concepts.[67] The Hindu reform movements and the Neo-Vedanta have emphasized the Vedic heritage and "ancient Hinduism", and this term has been co-opted by some Hindus.[65]

Brahmanism, also called Brahminism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley.[3][12] Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) class of the society,[3] Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti (Puranas and the Epics),[3] which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology developed in the Kuru-Pancala realm, and expanded into a wider realm after the demish of the Kuru-Pancala realm.[12] It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults.[2][68][69]

The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century.[70] Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the Hindu religion, treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism, and using it interchangeably.[71][72] In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism, and "Hindu" meant "Indian" when applied to people.

Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era.[4][73][74][75] The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.[76][77][78][lower-alpha 8]

The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.[79][80] With the growth of cities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins; the rise of Buddhism; and the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great (327–325 BCE), the rise of the Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE), and the Saka invasions and rule of northwestern India (2nd c. BC – 4th c. CE), Brahmanism faced a grave threat to its existence.[81][82] This was overcome by providing new services[83] and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism.[81][11][2][1][12][3][lower-alpha 1] This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmis could provide,[83] and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.[81][82]

Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism, is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society. The term may be used by anti-Brahminical opponents, who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology.[84]

A Śrauta yajna being performed in Kerala, South India

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:[13]

• The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:
  • The Agnisoma or Soma sacrifice
• Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
  • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm
  • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar
  • The new and full moon as well as the seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices
• The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
• The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire[14]
• The Purushamedha
• The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices[104]
• The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
  • The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.[105]
  • Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.[105]
  • Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra[105]
  • According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.[105]

The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)". (RV 10.15.14)

Though a large number of names for devas occur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven.[106] The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.[107] Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.[108]

In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were Yajnavalkya,[109][110] Atharvan,[111] Atri,[112] Bharadvaja,[113] Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni,[114] Kashyapa,[115] Vasistha,[116] Bhrigu,[117] Kutsa,[118] Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Vishwamitra Narayana, Kanva, Rishabha, Vamadeva, and Angiras.

Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like satya and ṛta.[119]

In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya (सत्य) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue.[120][121] It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.[120]

Vedic ṛtá and its Avestan equivalent aša are both thought by some to derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás "truth",[122] which in turn may continue from a possible Proto-Indo-European *h₂r-tós "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root *h₂er-. The derivative noun ṛta is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth".[123] As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth".[124] The latter meaning dominates in the Avestan cognate to Ṛta, aša.[125]

Due to the nature of Vedic Sanskrit, the term Ṛta can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for Ṛta in all of its various usages in the Vedas, though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.[126]

The term is also found in the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples.[127] The term dharma was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ṛta.[128]

According to German Professor Axel Michaels, the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as Shiva and Vishnu became more prominent and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[138]

According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, such as in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh state of India and elsewhere.[139] According to the historian and Sanskrit linguist Michael Witzel, some of the rituals of the Kalash people have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.[140][141]

Mīmāṃsā philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.[142] Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.[143]

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:

Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the Vedas it has to be remembered that the material of both form the Veda or "knowledge" which is sruti literature. So the Upanishads develop the ideas of the Vedas beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it.[144]

The Upanishads gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is regarded by some as the primary institution of Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".[145]

The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism.[146][147][lower-alpha 10][148][149] These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions,[146] reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India".[150] Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.[151]

There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE).[152][153] Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BCE, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism[154] and Islam.[155][156]