Doping in figure skating

Ekaterina Bobrova (2010)

In 2016, a former European ice dancing champion Ekaterina Bobrova failed a doping test as she tested positive for meldonium at the European Figure Skating Championship which is banned under WADA,[10] in turn, ruling her and her partner Dmitry Soloviev out of the 2016 World Figure Skating Championship.[10] Meldonium has been used to treat chest pains though some state that it has the potential to increase fitness level according to the World Anti-Doping Agency’s banned list.[11] Though this ban was overturned since there are was less than one microgram of meldonium and due to the uncertainties around how long it stays in the body. "Bobrova's suspension was subsequently lifted by the ISU, which stated it had decided "to stay the results management process and consequently not to disqualify any results at the present stage."[3]

In 2000, Elena Berezhnaya, a pairs skater, tested positive for pseudoephedrine, which was stated that she had been taking cold medication to treat bronchitis approved by a doctor and hadn't informed the ISU, resulting in her 2000 European Figure Skating Championship gold medal being stripped.[12][13][14] This resulted in three-month disqualification from the date of the test, thus the pair missed the World Championships that year as a result of the disqualification[12]'

Elizaveta Tuktamysheva at Worlds Figure Skating Championship (2015)

Yuri Larionov a male pairs skater Junior World Championships and winner of the 2007 Junior Grand Prix finals paired with Vera Bazarova, was suspended for an anti-doping violation for 18 months (January 2008 to July 2009) for using Furosemide a powerful diuretic which the World Anti-Doping Agency classifies as “masking” anabolic and steroids.[15][16] Yuri Larionov stated the use of the Furosemide was for weight loss but diuretics but it can be used as a masking agent for the use other substances, Though he claims that "during the month of December he had bought and then took a over-the-counter drug which behind his back contained a banned matter"[16][17]

Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, has publicly stated she has used meldonium before the ban but stopped when the ban was introduced in 2016.[18] During the figure skating season 2014-15, she won the 2015 World Figure Skating Championship and many question whether this is related to her use of meldonium as she competed thirteen times that season.[19] A well known figure skating coach Rafael Arutyunyan questions the use of PEDs and "whenever [an] athlete does that and says I’m dying, which is why I’m taking the pills, and then, she doesn’t die anymore, but the drug helps her to recover better, to train more, to add more power to his jumps".[19] Though "some experts said that the evidence for such claims are scant and that it was not even clear if the drug improves athletic performance"[20]

In 2019, Alexandra Koshevaya was sanctioned for a two-year suspension (March 7, 2019 and ending on March 6, 2021) for testing positive for torasemide for violating anti-doping rules during the 2019 Winter Universiade in Krasnoyarsk by the ISU.[21] She mistakenly had taken the medicine to reduce swelling (edema) in her foot and not consulted the detailed a sport doctor about the ingestion of torasemide.[22] According to the ISU Disciplinary Commission the "Alleged Offender concluded by regretting what had happened and taking the obligation never to take any medicine without prior consultation with specialists again." [22]

Laurine Lecavelier (2018)

In 2019, Anastasia Shakun, an ice dancer with Daniil Ragimov, at the national level and a member of the Figure Skating Federation of Russia (FSFR).[23] She received a one year ban( November 10, 2018 and ending on November 9, 2019) from the ISU, as she claims she mistakenly took furosemide during competition for an eye problem.[24][23] She was "suspended from practices and participations in all competition",[23] and explained she had taken furosemide at the advice of pharmacy before the competition to deal with eye swelling and "forgetting that it was on the Prohibited List"[23]

Laurine Lecavelier is a single figure skater who tested positive in 2020 for cocaine at France's Master's de Patinage announced by the French Federation of Ice Sports.[25][26] Thus, there is a risk of a four year suspension depending on whether it taken in or out of competition as if it was used for recreational purposes the penalty is less severe compared with the intention of performance enhancing.[27]

Kyoko Ina (2001)

According to the ISU record, Christine Chiniard is a French ice dancer who was stripped of her third place medal at the 1983 World Junior Figure Skating Championships in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, after failing a dope test for a weight-loss drug for prescribed medication.[4][28] Thus dropping to fourth place at the World Junior Figure Skating Championships.

In 2002, Kyoko Ina, a three-time Olympic pairs skater, was suspended for four years because she refused to take a randomly unscheduled drug test at 10:30pm in July,.[1][29] She was suspended by the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) but not be the ISU as the test was a national out of competition test never face suspension.[29] Since there was confusion about her retirement from amateur competition prior to testing as she announced he intended not to compete at the Olympics but no formal written notice to the USADA, she agreed to be suspended for two years without further appeal to the International Court of Arbitration for Sport .[30][1]

Darya Sirotina was banned for one year from 17 January 2017 to 16 January 2018 by skaters who was subject to a period of Ineligibility following an Anti-Doping Rule Violation by the ISU. The specific substance used is unknown.[2]

Darja Beklemiscseva was a Russian-Hungarian pairs skater who skated with Márk Magyar.[31] She was banned for two years from 1 December 2017 to 30 November 2019 by skaters who was who was subject to a period of Ineligibility following an Anti-Doping Rule Violation by the ISU. The specific substance used is unknown.[23]

Example of meldonium in a capsule and injectable

Meldonium (mildronate; 3-(2,2,2-trimethylhydrazinium)propionate;) is a cardio-protective drug.[33] Under the WADA banned list of substances, meldonium is an S4 substance. It is typically a drug that helps improve circulation to the brain and been used for heart conditions such as angina.[34] This drug s produced in Latvia and most commonly used in northern Europe such as Eastern European Counties such as Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Azerbaijan, and Armenia and not currently approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and in many countries of the European Union (EU).[34][7] As stated in this BBC article, "It is produced out of Latvia, has been around for some time and is commonly used in northern Europe.[34]

In figure skating, meldonium may have the potential to improve endurance performance and encourage the use of hormones and stimulants,[35][36] which could lead to misuse of meldonium as the sport requires strength, endurance and artistry.[7][5] Meldonium could be exploited because of the utilisation of fatty acid when exercising, along with decreased production of lactate acid after exercise and improved storage of glycogen.[35] This can benefit figure skaters (i.e Elizaveta Tuktamysheva and Ekaterina Bobrova) as they have a faster recovery time and are able to train at least 33 hours a week (27hrs on-ice training and 6hrs off-ice training) meaning figure skaters are able to train even longer and harder and recover faster.[7][5] Illustrated by the potential effects for meldonium to improve performance in figure skating without building bulk from steroids.[4][7]

Example of pseudoephedrine in capsule form of Sudafed where it contains 60 mg of pseudoephedrine hydrochloride.

Pseudoephedrine (PSE), is a commonly used drug for nasal decongestants that shrinks blood vessels in the nasal passage.[37][38] It is mainly used to treat nasal and sinus congestion or congestion of the tubes that drain fluid from your inner ears, called the eustachian tubes.[37] This drug has been banned by WADA as it is a stimulant and has the potential to enhance athletic performance [38] Due to its similarity between the structure of ephedrine and other central nervous systems stimulants.[38] In figure skating, as stated by Scott Hamilton that "stimulants were equally dangerous for a skater’s success. They could make you lose touch with the ice and ruin your concentration,″.[4] Thus illustrates the possible negative impact of stimulants in figure skating. But the effect of pseudoephedrine continues to be debated due to the lack of high quality random controlled trial (RCT) which could determine the exact role of pseudoephedrine in the body and whether it should be banned by WADA.[39] As stated by this study [39] that a "higher does of PSE may be more beneficial than an inactive placebo or lower doses in enhancing athletic performances". With more research and understanding about the possible effects of this drugs, "Since PSE is present in over-the-counter decongestants such as Sudafed, changes may allow athletes(i.e Elena Berezhnaya) to take appropriate doses for symptomatic relief, while taking the necessary precautions to avoid doping allegations and harmful side effects".[39] This illustrates the potential that possible athletes could misuse the drug as it is a nasal decongestants without the intention of performance enhancing.

The chemical structure of torasemide

Torasemide, is a high ceiling loop diuretic with the ability to promote excretion of water, sodium and chloride.[40] If it used as a medication it is used to treat "fluid overload due to heart failure, kidney disease, and liver disease and high blood pressure."[41] Torasemide is similar to furosemide (frusemide), but is twice as potent.[40] As a diuretics it aims to increase the rate of urine and sodium excretion in the body.[6] Though diuretics have no link with athletic performance but this is based on the interest of rapid weight loss but they can be used for one of two purposes.[6] Firstly it has the ability to remove water from the body to meet the weight categories in certain sport events. Secondly, it can be used to mask the other doping agents by reducing the concentration of urine volume.[42] WADA states "the use of diuretics is banned both in competition and out of competition and diuretics are routinely screened for by anti-doping laboratories".[6] Athletes will use diuretics in aesthetic sports particularly in figure skating where weight and physical appearance are heavily emphasised in the sport, which could encourage the use of diuretics with the intention of weight loss to be competitive at an elite level.[6][43] Though there are many individuals who will use torasemide as a way to deal with swelling or weight loss shown in cases like Anastasia Shakun, Alexandra Koshevaia and Yuri Larionov, but many question the real effectiveness of using torasemide or furosemide and other diuretics on athletic performance.[6]