Manam language

Manam is a Kairiru–Manam language spoken mainly on the volcanic Manam Island, northeast of New Guinea.

Manam
RegionNorthern New Guinea
Native speakers
8,000 (2003)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3mva
Glottologmana1295
ELPManam[2]

Phonology

Vowels

Front Central Back
High i u
Mid e o
Low a

Consonants

Bilabial Alveolar Velar
Stop p b t d k ~ ʔ ~ q ɡ
Nasal m n ŋ
Fricative (t)s (d)z
Lateral l
Flap ɾ ~ r

Allophony

Some vowels become glides in diphthongs, e.g. /u/, /o/ > [w] and /i/, /e/ > [j]. /i/ and /u/ are 'weaker' than /e/ and /o/, so that the syllable /kuo/ becomes [kwo] and not *[kuw]

According to Turner, /k/ is more and more often realized as [ʔ], while some older speakers have [q].

Syllable structure

The Manam syllable is (C)(V1)V(V1)(C1), the only exception is a syllabic [m̩].

There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V1 cannot be [a], whereas V must be [a] as long as it's not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C1 must be a nasal consonant.

Stress

Stress is phonemic: /ˈsara/ 'palm tree', /saˈra/ 'seagull'. The stress falls on one of the three last syllables of a word, and stressing the penult syllable is the most common: /ˈnatu/ 'child', /maˈlipi/ 'work'. If the last syllable ends in a nasal consonant, it will be stressed instead: /naˈtum/ 'your child'. Some inflections and affixes do not alter the stress of the root word: /iˈto/ 'he learned' (i- is a 3rd person prefix), /siˈŋabalo/ 'in the bush' (-lo is a locative suffix).

In the orthography, stressed vowels can be underlined in order to avoid ambiguities. Ie. /ˈsara/ sara 'palm tree', /saˈra/ sara 'seagull'.

Syntax

Word order

The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV:

tamoataboroi-un-i
manpig3SG.SUB-hit-3SG.OBJ
"The man hit the pig."

Predicator

Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause.[3]:92 The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.[3]:93

Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator[3]:94

(1) natu masa ŋa-eno
child INIR 3SG.IRR-sleep
‘the child will sleep’

Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator[3]:94

(2) aine ene i-tui=tui tina-gu
woman over 3SG.IRR-stand-RPL mother-1SG.AD
‘the woman who is standing over there is my mother’

Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator[3]:94

(3) tamoata ŋe-ø paŋana-ø patu boʔana
man this-3SG.AD head-3SG.AD stone SIM
‘this man’s head is like a stone’ i.e. this man is stubborn as a mule

Ex. (4): numeral predicator[3]:94

(4) boro ne-gu wati
pig POSS-1SG.AD four
‘I have four pigs’ (lit. my pigs are four)

Negation

Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: moaʔi and tago. moaʔi is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst tago is used for all other cases.[3]:384

Scope of negation

The use of tago is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: ‘I did not go to the party’ is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated, therefore act of going to the party is negated; ‘not one person went to the party’ is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.

Broad scope

A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker tago before the predicator,[3]:385 as demonstrated in the following examples:

Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element[3]:385

(5) tago u-loŋo
NEG 1SG.REAL-hear
‘I did not hear’

Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements[3]:385

(6) tamoata tago ŋa-te-a
man NEG 3SG.IRR-see-1SG.OBJ
‘the man will not see me’

Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements[3]:385

(7) baʔaraʔa nora tago ʔu-pura?
why yesterday NEG 2SG.REAL-come
‘why didn’t you come yesterday?’

Additionally, the negative marker tago can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses.[3]:387 Compare the following examples:

Ex. (8): negative existential sentence[3]:387

(8) ewa tago
fire NEG
‘there is no fire’

Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence[3]:387

(9) mone ne-gu tago
money POSS-1SG NEG
‘I have no money’

Narrow scope

As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing tago before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.

Ex. (10): narrow scope negation[3]:387

(10) ŋai tago toʔa-ø di-pura-budu-ru
3SG.IP NEG older.brother-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-come-together-DL
‘he came without his brother’

In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated, rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.

Ex. (11): narrow scope negation[3]:387

(11) tago ara-ø-n-oti i-ʔila-i
NEG name-3SG.AD-BF-INSTR 3SG.REAL-call-3SG.OBJ
‘he did not call him by his name’ (i.e. he called him not by his name but by some other name)

Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.

Negative quantifiers

Additionally, the negative marker tago can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers teʔe ‘one’ and alu ‘some’ to produce the negative expressions, tago teʔe ‘no; not any’ and tago alu ‘no; not any’.[3]:386 These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):

Ex. (12): negation using tago teʔe[3]:386

(12) ŋau [ʔana tago teʔe-ø] u-te-ø
1SG.IP thing NEG one-3SG.AD 1SG.REAL-see-3SG.OBJ
‘I did not see anything’ (lit. I saw not one thing)

Ex. (13): negation using tago teʔe[3]:386

(13) [tamoata tago teʔe-ø] taun-lo i-laʔo
person NEG one-3SG.AD town-to 3SG.REAL-go
‘no one went to town’ (lit. not one person went to town)

More specifically, tago alu is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; tago teʔecomparatively modifies count nouns.[3]:386 Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun[3]:386

(14) [daŋ tago alu-ø] di-eno
water NEG one-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-exist
‘there is no water’ (lit. not some water exists)

Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun[3]:386

(15) [daŋ tago teʔe-ø] di-eno
water NEG some-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-exist
‘there is no (containerful) of water’

Intensified negation

Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element –na and the intensifier suffix –tina to tago,[3]:388 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (16): intensifier suffix[3]:389

(16) ŋai tago-ø-na-tina i-pile=pile
3SG.IP NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT 3SG.REAL-speak-RPL
‘he does not speak at all’

The buffer element –na, however, is not included when tago acts as the predicator of a clause,[3]:388 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (17): intensified predicator[3]:389

(17) ŋau bua tago-tina
1SG.IP betelnut NEG-INT
‘I have no betelnuts at all’

Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using sesu ‘little’,[3]:389 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (18): intensifier sesu[3]:389

(18) tamoata-ŋe tago sesu u-tea=te-ø
man-this NEG little 1SG.REAL-RPL-see-3SG.OBJ
‘I don’t visit (see) this man at all’

Moreover, sesu ‘little’ can be used in conjunction with –tina within the same clause, as seen in the following example:[3]:388

Ex. (19): intensifier sesu + suffix –tina[3]:389

(19) tago-ø-na-tina sesu di-ra=raŋ-aʔ-idi
NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT little 3PL.REAL-talk about-RPL-TRANS-3PL.OBJ
‘they do not talk about themselves at all’

Furthermore, the suffix –tina may be appended to the prohibitive marker moaʔi (with the presence of the buffer –na),[3]:419 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (20): suffix –tina + prohibitive marker moaʔi[3]:340

(20) moaʔi-ø-na-tina niu-be ʔulu ʔu-buiriʔapotaʔ-i
PROH-3SG.AD-BF-INT coconut-and breadfruit 2SG.REAL-mix-3PL.OBJ
‘don’t mix the coconuts and the breadfruit’

Prohibitions

Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause;[4]:183 using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate ‘non-specific’ events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events.[3]:243–244 Compare the following examples:

Ex. (21): gerund[3]:244

(21) udi tano-ø tago u-ʔawa
banana plant-3PL.OBJ NEG 1SG.REAL-know
‘I don’t know how to plant bananas’ (in general)

Ex. (22): verbal noun[3]:244

(22) udi tanom-a-di tago u-ʔawa
banana plant-NOM-3PL.AD NEG 1SG.REAL-know
‘I don’t know to plant the bananas’ (specific bananas)

Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs

The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is moaʔi followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix,[3]:438 as seen in the following examples:

Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb[3]:418

(23) moaʔi ʔu-pereʔ-i
PROH 2SG.REAL-lose-3SG.OBJ
‘don’t lose it’

Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP[3]:419

(24) ŋai moaʔi i-raʔe-i
3SG.IP PROH 3SG.REAL-put up-3SG.OBJ
‘he should not boast’ (lit. he should not put himself up)

Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP[3]:419

(25) botolo moapesa-di moaʔi ʔu-roʔaʔ-i-ramo
bottle broken-3PL.AD PROH 2SG.REAL-throw-3PL.OBJ-all
‘don’t throw broken bottles around!’

Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between moaʔi and the verb,[3]:419 as in the following example:

Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb[3]:419

(26) moaʔi taburi-miŋ di-raya
PROH fear-2PL.AD 3PL.REAL-be bad
‘don’t be afraid!’ (lit. your fear should not be bad)

Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns

Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker moaʔi after the gerund or verbal noun,[3]:420 demonstrated in the following example:

Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun[3]:421

(27) taŋ moaʔi
cry PROH
‘don’t cry’ / ‘we/they/... should not cry’

:412The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).[3]:420

Additionally, the form raʔania ‘never mind’ may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of raʔania within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker moaʔi, as raʔania may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund.:420[3] Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using raʔania (following)[3]:412

(28) misaʔa raʔania
smack lips never mind
‘stop smacking your lips!’

Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using raʔania (preceding)[3]

(29) raʔania soaʔi-baya
never mind sit-LIM
‘you/we/... should not be just sitting doing nothing’

Indirect prohibitive constructions

The negative marker tago is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech[3]:422—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: tago is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:

Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction[3]:422

(30) di tago ga-taga-di ʔana di-ra-ʔama
3PL.RP NEG EXC.IRR-follow-3PL.OBJ PROSP 3PL.REAL-talk to-EXC.OBJ
‘they told us not to follow them’ (lit. we were/are not going to follow them; they told us)

Morphology

Number

Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, trial, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.

Pronouns

Person Number
Singular Dual Trial Plural
1st Inclusive kitaru kitato kita
Exclusive ngau
nga
keru keto keka
2nd kaiko
kai
kamru kamto kam
kakaming
3rd ngai diaru diato di

Reduplication

Reduplication can be either leftward (sa-salaga) or rightward (salaga-laga). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.

Nouns

Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an agentive marker:

moatasnake
moata-moataworm
malipithe work
malipi-lipiworker

Adjectives

Here are two examples of how number can be marked on the adjective through the different kinds of reduplication:

Rightward reduplication (singular)

udi noka-nokaripe banana
tamoata bia-biathe big man

Leftward reduplication (plural)

udi no-nokaripe bananas
tamoata bi-biathe big men

The verb

The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes includes such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers. Here's a schematical overview of the Manam verb:

Outer prefixes Verb nucleus Outer suffixes
Inner prefixes Root Inner suffixes
Subject/mood marking Manner prefix
aka- transitive
Verb root -ak- transitive Object marking
Optional suffixes

Subject marking

The marking of subject is obligatory. In addition to expressing number and person, the pronouns have fused with the mood markers (see below) called realis and irrealis.

Person Singular Plural
Real Irr Real Irr
1st Inclusive ta-
Exclusive u- m- ki- ga-
2nd ku- go- ka- kama-
3rd i- nga- di- da-

Mood

The realis mood (REAL) is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis (IRR) mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker wishes were real.

uranga-pura
rain3SG.IRR-come
"it will rain"
u-noku
1SG.REAL-jump
"I jumped"
nga-pilei-bebe
3SG.IRR-say3SG.REAL-unable
"he will say that he is unable" (he still hasn’t said anything, but when he does, his inability will be stated as actual)
tama-gui-rerezamago-pura
father-1SG.POSS3SG.REAL-wanttomorrow2SG.IRR-come
"my father wants you to come tomorrow" (the father’s wanting is real, whereas the anticipated coming is still unreal)

Manner prefixes

Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc.

borou-tara-paka-i
pig1SG.REAL-spearing-miss-3SG.OBJ
"I speared at the pig but missed it"

Object marking

Person Singular Plural
1st Inclusive -kita
Exclusive -a -kama
2nd -(i)ko -kaming
3rd -i -di
mi-ang-ko
1SG.IRR-give-2SG.OBJ
"I will give (it) to you"
niuu-sing-Ø
coconut1SG.REAL-drink-3SG.OBJ
"I drank a coconut"
go-ang-kama
2SG.IRR-give-EXCL
"give it to us"

Transitivization

There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning intransitive verbs into transitive ones:

  • The preffix -aka- can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
  • The suffix -ka- can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
  • The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.

These methods can be combined.

dangi-aka-gita-i
water3SG.REAL-TRANS-be_hot-3SG.OBJ
"he heated the water"
aka-tukura--ng-ak-i
TRANS-be_short-TC-TRANS-3SG.OBJ
"to shorten it"

Optional suffixes

The object suffixes are also optional, but rather common. Here are a few examples of some of the more unusual suffix types:

Direction

go-dok-a-mai
2SG.IRR-bring-3SG.OBJ-hither
"bring it here"

Spreading

pipiai-rokaki-ramoi
rubbish3SG.REAL-throw_away-all_over
"he throws rubbish all over the place"

Intensifying

u-rere-tina
1SG.REAL-like-very
"I like it very much"

Benefactive

go-moasi-n-a
2SG.IRR-sing-BEN-1SG.OBJ
"sing for me"

Adjectives

Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others don't, e.g. siki-siki 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. kapisa-Ø 'selfish' (singular) and kapisa-di 'selfish' (plural).

Possession

As in many other Austronesian languages, Manam expresses different degrees of possession. In addition to the most common differentitation between alienable and inalienable possession, Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are edible or associated with eating.

Possessive pronouns

Person Number
Singular Dual Trial Plural
1st Inclusive -da-ru -da-to -da
Exclusive -gu -ma-i-ru -ma-i-to -ma
2nd -m / -ng -ming-ru -ming-to -ming
3rd -di-a-ru -di-a-to -di

Inalienable possession

In this class, we find 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question:

mata-gu
eye-1SG.POSS
"my eye"
niulabu-di
coconutbase-3PL.POSS
"the bases of the coconut trees"

Edible possession

In this class, we find things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word kana, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

udikana-gu
bananaFOOD-1SG.POSS
"my banana"

Alienable possession

In this class, we find belongings that are voluntary; things that we can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word ne, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

katine-gu
canoeALIEN-1SG.POSS
"my canoe"
natukeune-di
childdogALIEN-3PL.POSS
"the children’s dogs"

Cross-class possession

One fascinating thing is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples:

   boro-gumy pig (as part of one's wealth)
   boro kana-gumy pork (which I am going to eat)
   boro ne-gumy pig (which I may or may not eat later)
   dang-i-gumy water (or rather 'body fluids')
   dang kana-gumy water (to drink)
   dang ne-gumy water (to wash with)

Directional System

Manam, like most Oceanic languages primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system is oriented on a land-sea axis.[5] However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam:[3]

Ilau toward the sea
Auta toward the land
Ata to one's right when one is facing the sea
Awa to one's left when one is facing the sea

This directional system has only been attested in three languages: Manam, Boumaa Fijian,[6] and Makian Taba.[7]

Abbreviations

AD adnominal
BF buffer
DL dual
EXC exclusive
INIR indefinite irrealis
INSTR instrumental
INT intensifier
IP independent pronoun
IRR irrealis
LIM limiter
NEG negator
NOM nominaliser
OBJ object
PL plural
POSS possessive
PROH prohibitive
REAL realis
RPL reduplication
SG singular
SIM simulative
TRANS transitiviser

Resources

References

  1. Manam at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. Endangered Languages Project data for Manam.
  3. Lichtenberk, F. 1983. A grammar of Manam. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, (18), i-647.
  4. Crystal, David (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  5. François, A. 2004. Reconstructing the geocentric system of Proto-Oceanic. Oceanic linguistics, 43(1), 1-31.
  6. Dixon, R. M. W. 1988. A grammar of Boumaa Fijian. University of Chicago Press.
  7. Bowden, J. 1997. The meaning of directionals in Taba. In Referring to space. Studies in Austronesian and Papuan languages, ed. by Gunter Senft, 251-268. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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