Nucleon

Quark composition of a nucleon

Proton (
p
):
u

u

d

Neutron (
n
):
u

d

d

Antiproton (
p
):
u

u

d

Antineutron (
n
):
u

d

d

A proton (p) is composed of two up quarks (u) and one down quark (d): uud. A neutron (n) has one up quark (u) and two down quarks (d): udd. An antiproton (
p
) has two up antiquarks (
u
) and one down antiquark (
d
):
u

u

d
. An antineutron (
n
) has one up antiquark (
u
) and two down antiquarks (
d
):
u

d

d
. The color charge (color assignment) of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors (red, green, blue) must be present.

Protons and neutrons are best known in their role as nucleons, i.e., as the components of atomic nuclei, but they also exist as free particles. Free neutrons are unstable, with a half-life of around 13 minutes, but they have important applications (see neutron radiation and neutron scattering). Protons not bound to other nucleons are the nuclei of hydrogen atoms when bound with an electron or — if not bound to anything — are ions or cosmic rays.

Both the proton and the neutron are composite particles, meaning each is composed of smaller parts, namely three quarks each; although once thought to be so, neither is an elementary particle. A proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron has one up quark and two down quarks. Quarks are held together by the strong force, or equivalently, by gluons, which mediate the strong force at the quark level.

An up quark has electric charge ​+ ²⁄₃ e, and a down quark has charge ​− ¹⁄₃ e, so the summed electric charges of proton and neutron are +e and 0, respectively.[lower-alpha 1] Thus, the neutron has a charge of 0 (zero), and therefore is electrically neutral; indeed, the term "neutron" comes from the fact that a neutron is electrically neutral.

The masses of the proton and neutron are quite similar: The proton is 1.6726×10⁻²⁷ kg or 938.27 MeV/c², while the neutron is 1.6749×10⁻²⁷ kg or 939.57 MeV/c². The neutron is roughly 0.13% heavier. The similarity in mass can be explained roughly by the slight difference in masses of up quarks and down quarks composing the nucleons. However, a detailed explanation remains an unsolved problem in particle physics.[1]^:135–136

The spin of the nucleon is ​¹⁄₂, which means they are fermions and, like electrons, are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle: No more than one nucleon, e.g. in an atomic nucleus, may occupy the same quantum state.

The isospin and spin quantum numbers of the nucleon have two states each, resulting in four combinations in total. An alpha particle is composed of four nucleons occupying all four combinations, namely it has two protons (having opposite spin) and two neutrons (also having opposite spin) and its net nuclear spin is zero. In larger nuclei constituent nucleons, to avoid Pauli exclusion, are compelled to have relative motion which may also contribute to nuclear spin via the orbital quantum number. They spread out into nuclear shells analogous to electron shells known from chemistry.

The magnetic moment of a proton, denoted μ_p, is 2.79 μ_N (where μ_N represents the atomic-scale unit of measure called the nuclear magneton). The magnetic moment of a neutron is μ_n = −1.91 μ_N. These parameters are also important in NMR / MRI scanning.

A neutron in free state is an unstable particle, with a half-life around ten minutes. It undergoes
β⁻
decay (a type of radioactive decay) by turning into a proton while emitting an electron and an electron antineutrino. (See the Neutron article for more discussion of neutron decay.) A proton by itself is thought to be stable, or at least its lifetime is too long to measure. This is an important discussion in particle physics, (see Proton decay).

Inside a nucleus, on the other hand, combined protons and neutrons (nucleons) can be stable or unstable depending on the nuclide, or nuclear species. Inside some nuclides, a neutron can turn into a proton (producing other particles) as described above; the reverse can happen inside other nuclides, where a proton turns into a neutron (producing other particles) through
β⁺
decay, or electron capture. And inside still other nuclides, both protons and neutrons are stable and do not change form.

Both nucleons have corresponding antiparticles: the antiproton and the antineutron, which have the same mass and opposite charge as the proton and neutron respectively, and they interact in the same way. (This is generally believed to be exactly true, due to CPT symmetry. If there is a difference, it is too small to measure in all experiments to date.) In particular, antinucleons can bind into an "antinucleus". So far, scientists have created antideuterium[2][3] and antihelium-3[4] nuclei.

^a The masses of the proton and neutron are known with far greater precision in atomic mass units (u) than in MeV/c², due to the relatively poorly known value of the elementary charge. The conversion factor used is 1 u = 931.494028±0.000023 MeV/c².

The masses of their antiparticles are assumed to be identical, and no experiments have refuted this to date. Current experiments show any percent difference between the masses of the proton and antiproton must be less than 2×10⁻⁹[PDG 1] and the difference between the neutron and antineutron masses is on the order of (9±6)×10⁻⁵ MeV/c².[PDG 2]

Proton-antiproton CPT invariance tests

Test	Formula	PDG result[PDG 1]
Mass	${\displaystyle {\frac {|m_{p}-m_{\bar {p}}|}{m_{p}}}}$	<2×10−9
Charge-to-mass ratio	${\displaystyle {\frac {\left|{\frac {q_{\bar {p}}}{m_{\bar {p}}}}\right|}{\left({\frac {q_{p}}{m_{p}}}\right)}}}$	0.99999999991±0.00000000009
Charge-to-mass-to-mass ratio	${\displaystyle {\frac {\left|{\frac {q_{\bar {p}}}{m_{\bar {p}}}}\right|-{\frac {q_{p}}{m_{p}}}}{\frac {q_{p}}{m_{p}}}}}$	(−9±9)×10−11
Charge	${\displaystyle {\frac {\left|q_{p}+q_{\bar {p}}\right|}{e}}}$	<2×10−9
Electron charge	${\displaystyle {\frac {\left|q_{p}+q_{e}\right|}{e}}}$	<1×10−21
Magnetic moment	${\displaystyle {\frac {\left|\mu _{p}+\mu _{\bar {p}}\right|}{\mu _{p}}}}$	(−0.1±2.1)×10−3

^b At least 10³⁵ years. See proton decay.

^c For free neutrons; in most common nuclei, neutrons are stable.

Nucleon resonances are excited states of nucleon particles, often corresponding to one of the quarks having a flipped spin state, or with different orbital angular momentum when the particle decays. Only resonances with a 3 or 4 star rating at the Particle Data Group (PDG) are included in this table. Due to their extraordinarily short lifetimes, many properties of these particles are still under investigation.

The symbol format is given as N(m) L_IJ, where m is the particle's approximate mass, L is the orbital angular momentum of the Nucleon-meson pair, produced when it decays, and I and J are the particle's isospin and total angular momentum respectively. Since nucleons are defined as having ​¹⁄₂ isospin, the first number will always be 1, and the second number will always be odd. When discussing nucleon resonances, sometimes the N is omitted and the order is reversed, in the form L_IJ (m); for example, a proton can be denoted as "N(939) S₁₁" or "S₁₁ (939)".

The table below lists only the base resonance; each individual entry represents 4 baryons: 2 nucleon resonances particles, as well as their 2 antiparticles. Each resonance exists in a form with a positive electric charge (Q), with a quark composition of
u

u

d
like the proton, and a neutral form, with a quark composition of
u

d

d
like the neutron, as well as the corresponding antiparticles with antiquark compositions of
u

u

d
and
u

d

d
respectively. Since they contain no strange, charm, bottom, or top quarks, these particles do not possess strangeness, etc.

The table only lists the resonances with an isospin = ​¹⁄₂. For resonances with isospin = ​³⁄₂, see the article on Delta baryons.

† The P₁₁(939) nucleon represents the excited state of a normal proton or neutron, for example, within the nucleus of an atom. Such particles are usually stable within the nucleus, i.e. Lithium-6.

The Skyrmion models the nucleon as a topological soliton in a non-linear SU(2) pion field. The topological stability of the Skyrmion is interpreted as the conservation of baryon number, that is, the non-decay of the nucleon. The local topological winding number density is identified with the local baryon number density of the nucleon. With the pion isospin vector field oriented in the shape of a hedgehog space, the model is readily solvable, and is thus sometimes called the hedgehog model. The hedgehog model is able to predict low-energy parameters, such as the nucleon mass, radius and axial coupling constant, to approximately 30% of experimental values.

The MIT bag model [5][6][7] confines three non-interacting quarks to a spherical cavity, with the boundary condition that the quark vector current vanish on the boundary. The non-interacting treatment of the quarks is justified by appealing to the idea of asymptotic freedom, whereas the hard boundary condition is justified by quark confinement.

Mathematically, the model vaguely resembles that of a radar cavity, with solutions to the Dirac equation standing in for solutions to the Maxwell equations and the vanishing vector current boundary condition standing for the conducting metal walls of the radar cavity. If the radius of the bag is set to the radius of the nucleon, the bag model predicts a nucleon mass that is within 30% of the actual mass.

Although the basic bag model does not provide a pion-mediated interaction, it describes excellently the nucleon-nucleon forces through the 6 quark bag s-channel mechanism using the P matrix.[8] [9]

The chiral bag model[10][11] merges the MIT bag model and the Skyrmion model. In this model, a hole is punched out of the middle of the Skyrmion, and replaced with a bag model. The boundary condition is provided by the requirement of continuity of the axial vector current across the bag boundary.

Very curiously, the missing part of the topological winding number (the baryon number) of the hole punched into the Skyrmion is exactly made up by the non-zero vacuum expectation value (or spectral asymmetry) of the quark fields inside the bag. As of 2017, this remarkable trade-off between topology and the spectrum of an operator does not have any grounding or explanation in the mathematical theory of Hilbert spaces and their relationship to geometry.

Several other properties of the chiral bag are notable: It provides a better fit to the low energy nucleon properties, to within 5–10%, and these are almost completely independent of the chiral bag radius (as long as the radius is less than the nucleon radius). This independence of radius is referred to as the Cheshire Cat principle,[12] after the fading of Lewis Carroll's Cheshire Cat to just its smile. It is expected that a first-principles solution of the equations of QCD will demonstrate a similar duality of quark-pion descriptions.