The Red Shoes (1948 film)

A central theme to The Red Shoes is a performer's conflict between their art and personal life.[3] Commenting on this theme, Powell himself stated that the film is "about dying for art, that art is worth dying for."[3] Film scholar Adrienne McLean, however, notes that Victoria's final leap to her death does not adequately represent this idea.[3] Rather, McLean states that Victoria "seems pushed by those she loves who would rather possess her than support her," and that the film ultimately illustrates the impact of "ruthless personalities" can have on "the weaker or more demure."[3]

Scholar Peter Fraser, in Cinema Journal, observes of this tension between art and life that the film implodes its own "narrative and lyrical worlds...  from the moment of recognition, when Vicky looks down at her red shoes and knows that she is then her lyrical persona, her two worlds collapse."[4] He further states that the interpenetration of the lyrical upon the narrative "alters the meaning of the fiction" itself.[4] This blurring of the lyrical and the narrative is represented at the end of the film, when Vicky jumps onto the train platform; she is wearing the red shoes which she wore while preparing in her dressing room, despite the fact that in the performance her character does not put them on until part way through the ballet. Powell and Pressburger themselves discussed this idiosyncrasy[5] and it has been subject to significant critical analysis since.[6] Powell decided that it was artistically "right" for Vicky to be wearing the red shoes at that point because if she is not wearing them, it takes away the ambiguity over why she died.[5]

Publicity still showing a moment of the Ballet of the Red Shoes sequence

The Red Shoes is famous for featuring a 17-minute ballet sequence (of a ballet entitled The Ballet of the Red Shoes) as its centerpiece.[2][8] The sequence utilizes a variety of filmic techniques to provide an "impressionistic link" to the Hans Christian Andersen fairytale on which it (and the ballet within the film) are based, as well as the personal struggles faced by the protagonist, Victoria Page, who is dancing the lead role.[9] McLean notes that the ballet not only duplicates Victoria's own story, but also foreshadows her love for Julian, the conductor in the ballet's orchestra, as well as the contemptuous jealousy of Lermontov, its director.[10]

Throughout the ballet, visual metaphors and fantastical references to Victoria's own life come alive on the screen, including a portion in which she dances with a floating newspaper that alternates in form between mere paper and the human form of Helpmann's character; this is referential to a windblown newspaper that Victoria previously stepped on the night she discovered she had acquired the lead role in the ballet.[10]

Unlike in conventional filmed theatrical ballet, the ballet sequence in The Red Shoes is not one continuous, static shot, but instead employs a variety of editing techniques, close-ups, and special effects.[11] As the ballet progresses, McLean notes that the action of the sequence "rockets from stage right to stage left, a series of swiftly performed vignettes alternating with garishly decorated set pieces. Then, as Robert Helpmann, playing the girls' lover, is borne away into the distance by a crowd, leaving the girl alone in her cursed red shoes, the action reverses...  into and through the ballerina's subconscious mind."[12] Because of its dynamic nature and excessive use of cinematic techniques, McLean contests that the ballet sequence is a "greater, or more characteristic, film experience than a dance one."[13]

The question of genre in relationship to The Red Shoes has been a recurrent preoccupation of both critics and scholars, as it does not neatly fit within the confines of a single genre.[14] While the film's extended ballet sequences led some to characterize the film as a musical, McLean notes that the "conventional signals that had allowed fantasy elements to occur in other [musical] films are missing in The Red Shoes."[14] Fraser contests that the film is not emblematic of the standard musical as it has a tragic and violent resolution, and that it is best understood as a "prototype of a generic variation" emerging from the musical film tradition.[15]

The 21st-century critic Peter Bradshaw identifies elements of horror in the film, particularly in its central, surreal ballet sequence, which he likens to "the surface of Lewis Carroll's looking-glass, through which the viewer is transported into a new world of amazement and occult horror."[16]

Producer Alexander Korda had conceived a ballet-themed film in 1934, which he intended to be a biopic about Vaslav Nijinsky.[17] The project never came to fruition, but in 1937, Korda found himself again inspired to write a ballet-themed film as a vehicle for Merle Oberon, his future wife.[17] Korda, along with filmmaker Michael Powell, fashioned a film based on Oberon's looks, but, because she was not a skilled dancer, Korda knew he would need to use a double for any dance sequences.[17] Korda eventually abandoned the project, instead shifting his focus to The Thief of Bagdad (1940).[17]

In 1946, Powell and his filmmaking partner Emeric Pressburger bought the rights to the screenplay Powell had co-written with Korda for £9,000.[17] According to Powell, the original screenplay contained significantly more dialogue and less story.[18]

The character of Boris Lermontov was inspired in part by Sergei Diaghilev, the impresario who founded the Ballets Russes,[19] although there are also aspects about him drawn from the personalities of producer J. Arthur Rank and even director Michael Powell himself.[5] The particular episode in Diaghilev's life that is said to have inspired the characterisation is his seeing the 14-year-old Diana Gould partnering Frederick Ashton in the première of his first ballet, Leda and the Swan. On the basis of this, Diaghilev invited her to join his company, but he died before that plan could come about.[20]

The Hans Christian Andersen story tells how the orphan Karen's colorblind guardian buys her an inappropriate pair of red shoes for her church confirmation ceremony, but, when the mistake is discovered, forbids her to wear them. She disobeys. A crippled "old soldier" at the church door tells Karen they are dancing shoes. Later, she wears them to a ball, and cannot stop dancing. She dances day and night until an executioner, at her request, amputates her feet; the shoes dance away with them. She lives with a parson's family after that, and she dies with a vision of finally being able to join the Sunday congregation. In this story, the shoes represent "her sin", the vanity and worldly pleasures (implicitly, female sexuality) which distracted her from a life of generosity, piety, and community.

The ballet has three characters: the Girl, the Boy and the Shoemaker. The Boy, danced by Robert Helpmann, is at first the girl's boyfriend; as she dances, he turns into a sketch on transparent cellophane. Later he appears as the living counterpart of the Press, with "Le Jour" written on his forehead ("The Daily") and an alter ego made of folded newspapers, then as the prince in a triumphant Pas de deux/six. Finally, the Boy appears as the village parson; when he unties the red shoes, the girl dies in his arms. The Shoemaker, danced by Léonide Massine, is a diabolical figure far beyond the scope of the "old soldier". Always dancing, he tempts the girl with the shoes, installs them by "movie magic" on her feet, partners her briefly, and generally gloats over her confusion and despair. At one point he leads a mob of "primitive" monsters who surround her, but they elevate her high in a triumphant ballerina pose. At the end, the shoemaker picks up the discarded shoes and offers them to the audience. In the context of the movie, the shoes represent the choice offered by Lermontov to become a great dancer, at the expense of normal human relationships.

Moira Shearer, a trained ballerina, was cast in the lead role

Powell and Pressburger decided early on that they had to use dancers who could act rather than actors who could dance.[21] To create a realistic feeling of a ballet company at work, and to be able to include a fifteen-minute ballet as the high point of the film, they created their own ballet company using many dancers from The Royal Ballet.[22]

In casting the lead role of Victoria Page, Powell and Pressburger sought an experienced dancer who could also act.[23] Scottish ballerina Moira Shearer was recommended by Robert Helpmann, who had been cast in the film as Ivan Boleslawsky, and was also appointed the choreographer of the central ballet sequence; Helpmann had worked with Shearer prior in a production of his ballet Miracle in the Gorbals.[23] At the time, Shearer was beginning to ascend in her career with the Sadler's Wells Dance Company, dancing under Ninette de Valois.[2] Upon reading the screenplay, Shearer declined the offer, as she felt taking a film role would negatively impact her dancing career.[23] She also felt that the screenplay presented a ballet company that was unrealistic, "utterly unlike any ballet company that there had ever been anywhere."[23] She recalled: "Red Shoes was the last thing I wanted to do. I fought for a year to get away from that film, and I couldn't shake the director off."[24]

After Shearer's refusal of the role, American ballerinas Nana Gollner and Edwina Seaver tested for the part, but their acting abilities proved unsatisfactory to Powell and Pressburger.[23] Non-dancers Hazel Court and Ann Todd were briefly considered before Shearer changed her mind, and decided to accept the role with de Valois's blessing.[25] Shearer claimed that de Valois, exasperated by the ordeal, finally advised her to take the role.[24] Powell alternately recounted that de Valois was "more manipulative" in the process, and would vacillate in regard to whether or not Shearer would have a place in the company to return to once filming was completed, accounting for Shearer's alleged protracted contemplation of whether to take the part.[24]

For the role of Julian Craster, the musician with whom Victoria falls in love, Marius Goring was cast.[26] While Goring—at the time in his mid-30s—was slightly too old to play the role, Powell and Pressburger were impressed by his "tact and unselfish approach to his craft."[26] They cast Anton Walbrook in the part of Victoria's domineering ballet director, Boris Lermontov, for similar reasons, as they felt he was a "well-mannered and sensitive actor" who could support Shearer through their emotional scenes together.[26]

The other principal dancers cast in the film included Léonide Massine (who also served as a choreographer for his role as the shoemaker in The Ballet of the Red Shoes), portraying dancer Grischa Ljubov,[27] and Ludmilla Tchérina as dancer Irina Boronskaya; the latter was cast by Powell, who was captivated by her unconventional beauty.[28]

Filming of The Red Shoes took place primarily in Paris, with principal photography beginning in June 1947.[29] Jack Cardiff, who had shot Powell and Pressburger's Black Narcissus, served as cinematographer.[30] The shooting schedule ran approximately fifteen weeks, on a budget of £300,000.[31] Filming also occurred on location in London, Monte Carlo, and the Côte d'Azur.[32] Some sequences were filmed at Pinewood Studios, including the stage and orchestra pit sequences, which were sets constructed specifically for the film.[33]

According to biographer Mark Connelly, the shoot was largely copacetic, with the cast and crew having a "happy time" on set.[35] On the first day of the shoot, Powell addressed the cast and crew: "We'll be doing things that haven't been done before, we'll have to work very hard—but I know it's going to be worth it."[35] The shooting of the film's central The Ballet of Red Shoes sequence took approximately six weeks, according to Shearer, who recalled that it was completed in the middle of the production.[36] Powell disputed this, instead claiming that it was the last portion of the film to be shot.[36] Filming the ballet proved difficult for experienced dancers, who were used to performing live ballet, as the filming process required them to spend hours preparing to shoot moments that lasted sometimes only a few seconds.[13] Shearer recalled that the ballet sequence was "so cinematically worked out that we were lucky if we ever danced for as long as one minute."[13]

The shoot overran significantly, totaling twenty-four weeks rather than the planned fifteen, and the final budget ballooned to over £500,000.[lower-alpha 1] John Davis, the chief accountant of The Rank Organisation, forced a £10,000 cut to Powell and Pressburger's salaries due to the film going over budget.[35] Because the shoot was extended so far beyond schedule, Powell and Pressburger promised the cast and crew a fortnight's holiday in September.[35]

Australian ballet star Robert Helpmann choreographed the ballet, played the role of the lead dancer of the Ballet Lermontov and danced the part of the boyfriend. Léonide Massine created his own choreography for his role as the Shoemaker. Brian Easdale composed the original music for the film, including the full ballet of The Red Shoes.[39] Easdale conducted most of the music in the film, except for the Ballet of the Red Shoes, where Sir Thomas Beecham conducted the score and received prominent screen credit. Beecham's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was the featured orchestra for the film.

The score for The Red Shoes was written to "fit the cinematic design,"[40] and completed in an unorthodox manner: Easdale composed the score for the film's central ballet sequence based on cartoon drawings and storyboards approved by Helpmann, which were assembled in the correct sequence.[7] A total of 120 drawings were provided to help guide Easdale in writing an appropriate musical accompaniment.[7] As filming of the ballet sequence progressed, the hand drawings were replaced by the corresponding completed shots.[7] Easdale received the 1948 Academy Award for Best Original Score, the first British film composer so honoured.[41]

Upon its initial release in the United Kingdom in September 1948, the film was a low-earning picture, as the Rank Organisation could not afford to spend much on promotion due to severe financial problems exacerbated by the expense of Caesar and Cleopatra (1945). Also, according to Powell, the Rank Organisation did not understand the artistic merits of the film, and this strain in the relationship between The Archers and the Rank Organisation led to the end of the partnership between them, with The Archers moving to work for Alexander Korda.[5]

Despite a lack of advertising, the film went on to become the sixth most popular film at the British box office in 1948.[42][43] According to Kinematograph Weekly the 'biggest winner' at the box office in 1948 Britain was The Best Years of Our Lives" with Spring in Park Lane being the best British film and "runners up" being It Always Rains on Sunday, My Brother Jonathan, Road to Rio, Miranda, An Ideal Husband, Naked City, The Red Shoes, Green Dolphin Street, Forever Amber, Life with Father, The Weaker Sex, Oliver Twist, The Fallen Idol and The Winslow Boy.[44]

The film premiered in the United States at New York City's Bijou Theatre on 21 October 1948,[45] distributed by Eagle-Lion Films.[46] By the end of the year, it had earned $2.2 million in US rentals.[47] It ended its run at this theater on 13 November 1950, playing for a total of 107 weeks. The success of this run convinced Universal Studios that The Red Shoes was a worthwhile film and they took over the U.S. distribution in 1951. The Red Shoes went on to become one of the highest-earning British films of all time, with a record-breaking gross of over $5 million.[2][48]

It made a reported profit of £785,700.[1]

Promotional flyer for the film

Film scholar Mark Connelly notes that interpreting the contemporaneous critical response to The Red Shoes is a "complicated task, as there are no simple divisions between those who liked the film and those who did not."[49] Connelly concludes that the reaction was notably "complex and mixed."[49] Adrienne McLean similarly states that the film received "only mixed" reviews from both cinema and ballet critics.[50] Upon its release in the United Kingdom, the film received some criticism from national press, particularly aimed at Powell and Pressburger for the perception that the feature was "undisciplined and downright unBritish."[51]

While the film had its detractors in Britain, it was lauded by some national critics, such as Dilys Powell, who deemed it an "extreme pleasure" and "brilliantly experimental."[52] Writing for The Monthly Film Bulletin, Marion Eames praised the performances of Shearer and Goring, as well as the score.[49] The Daily Film Renter published a divisive review, noting that Powell and Pressburger "have fumbled over a fine idea, and their opulent work trembles between the heights and the depths."[49] Despite this, it was voted the third-best film of the year in a readers' poll by the Daily Mail, behind Spring in Park Lane and Oliver Twist.[53]

Initial reception proved more favorable in the United States, where the film went on to garner mainstream attention after it screened in the U.S. arthouse circuit.[51]

A main point of contention amongst both British and American critics was a perceived lack of realism in respect to the ballet sequences.[54] The focus of this criticism was the film's central 17-minute ballet performance of The Ballet of the Red Shoes: Many dance critics felt the sequence's impressionistic touches—which include abstract hallucinations and visual manifestations of Vicky's mental state—detracted from the physical aspects of the ballet.[55] British ballet critic also Katherine Sorley Walker dismissed the sequence, commenting that it marked "a departure from the illusion of stage ballet to the limitless and lush spaces reflecting the ballerina's thought."[52] Eames made similar criticism, condemning the subjective elements of the sequence as "corrupting the integrity of the ballet," as well as the choreography.[56] Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times, however, praised the presentation of ballet in the film, deeming it "the most ambitious—and probably the most dazzlingly successful—use of traditional-type ballet in any motion picture to date."[57]

The American home media company The Criterion Collection released The Red Shoes on laserdisc in 1994, and on DVD in 1999.[60]

Before-and-after comparison of the film illustrating its restoration

Efforts to restore The Red Shoes began in the early 2000s.[61] With fundraising spearheaded by Martin Scorsese and his longtime editor (and Powell's widow), Thelma Schoonmaker, Robert Gitt and Barbara Whitehead formally began the restoration in the fall of 2006 at the UCLA Film and Television Archive, along with the help of the United States Film Foundation.[61] Gitt, the chief preservation officer of the UCLA Archive, supervised the restoration, assisting Whitehead in reviewing each individual frame of the film—192,960 in the print, 578,880 in the tripartite negative.[61] The original negatives had suffered extensive harm, including shrinkage and mould damage.[61] Because the damage to the negatives was so significant, digital restoration was the only viable method of rehabilitating the film.[62] The 4K digital restoration was completed with the help of the Prasad Corporation and Warner Bros. Motion Picture Imaging to remove dirt, scratches, and other flaws.[62] Digital methods were also utilized to remove pops, crackles and background hiss from the film's original optical soundtrack.[62]

The newly restored version of The Red Shoes had its world premiere at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival.[61] Several months later, in October 2009, ITV Films released the restored version on Blu-ray in the United Kingdom.[63] On 20 July 2010, the Criterion Collection again reissued the film in its restored state on DVD and Blu-ray.[60] Reviewing the Criterion Blu-ray, which includes an illustrative demonstration of the film's restoration, Stuart Galbraith of DVD Talk referred to the "before and after" comparisons as "shocking and heartening at once."[60]