Advertising to children

Advertising to children can take place on traditional media—television, radio and print—as well as new media (internet and other electronic media). Packaging, in-store advertising, event sponsorship, and promotions can also be used.

UNESCO—the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization—defines early childhood as ages 0–8 years.[1] For the purposes of advertising law, the definition of a child varies from one jurisdiction to another. However, the age of 12 is commonly used as a cut-off point. This cut off point is on the close enough basis of the widespread academic view that by age 12 children have developed their behavior as consumers, can effectively recognize advertising and are able to adopt critical attitudes towards it.[2]

In the 19th century, the compulsory education of children was established which consequently made them target audiences of many publications.[3] Also around this period, Comic books publishers realized the importance of marketing comic books to young people in raising their potential sales, which resulted in the rise of comic book promotion to the youth market in the 19th century, characterised by a popularity in broadcast media like radio and television. For advertisers, these mediums expanded their ability to communicate with consumers effectively. It was also during this era that spot advertising (a form of advertising where advertisements appear between programs) came to be known as a prodigious way of advertising.[4]

As the popularity of sponsorship arrangements grew,[5] American advertisers sponsored TV programmes or films in order to promote their products through broadcast media. Concern grew that this form of advertising could easily manipulate young children as they are less able to comprehend the implicit objective of advertisers.[6] For example, a content creator on YouTube will promote their own merchandising during a video with no distinction between the video and the advertisement.

A late-August 2016 report indicated that various Internet streaming services have saved children of the 2010s from 150 hours of commercials every year.[7]

Studies estimate that children between the ages of 6 and 11 spend on average 28 hours a week watching television[8] and are exposed to as many as 20,000 commercials in a single year.[9] Since the 1970s, there has been a large amount of concern as to whether or not children are able to comprehend advertisements and the extent to which they do so.[10] A study conducted by Goldberg, M. E., & Gorn, G. J. in 1983 looked at the acquisition of children's cognitive defences and found that, until the age of 8 most children are unable to understand the selling intent of televised advertisements. Between the ages of 8 and 11 children only have a partial understanding of selling intent, and it is not until at least the age of 11 that a child is able to fully understand the selling intent of televised advertisements.[11] The study concludes that there is a large difference in basic understanding of the purpose of advertising between children of a younger age and of an older age, and as a result different age groups have different reactions to television-based advertisements.[10]

There are positive and negative implications to TV advertising on little children, for both marketers and the children who view the advertisements. Many advertising aimed at children is criticized for enforcing gender stereotypes.[12] Some countries have broadcast codes that suggest that TV advertisements should not contain exaggerated claims that will mislead or deceive children, abuse their trust or lack the understanding of persuasive intent in an advertisement.[13]

Many parents report being pestered by their children for the product they have seen on TV.[14][15] This phenomenon is dubbed "pester power", which means that little children pester their parents to buy things for them that they desire.[16] A study showed that mothers are more likely to purchase a product for their children due to the emotional appeal of their children's response to an advertisement.[17]

Critics  have likewise communicated concern with respect to the predominance of promoting of brutal media, for example, films and computer games, focusing on children. Three reports by the Federal Trade Commission discovered significant help for such charges, and keeping in mind that reviews have not legitimately surveyed the effect of such publicizing, revealing that such advertisements do influence kids' media inclinations.[18]

Many advertisements involve children around the same age as the viewer. The latest technology; from laptops, cellphones, to toys are being this advertised by companies trying to sell their product. Whenever children watch any commercial, there is a child around the same age as them. They see the child just laughing it up, crazy about a toy, and they want it.[19] Most scholars and experts agree that children should not be targeted in ads and that there should be stricter rules around it. However, adults make the purchasing decisions, while children don't have enough life experience to know they are being manipulated. Companies will still use ads to target children because they are worth billions in sales.[20]

The effect is seen on adults, but mainly on young children. According to a study from the UK, it states that celebrities who endorse specific foods in TV commercials are a powerful influence on children, and that effect may extend beyond the advertisement itself. That study contained 181 children, and was concluded that kids ate more potato chips after seeing ads featuring a popular UK sports figure than kids who only watched commercials for toys and nuts.[21] Jason C. G. Halford from University of Liverpool stated , "Obviously when they saw Gary Lineker in the advertisement, they ate a lot more crisps... but what was surprising was when we showed him presenting his show we found that it had the same effect as the advertisement."[21] Many researches indicate that kids are more likely to pick foods sponsored by celebrities, even when it's just fruit. A study in 2012, found that kids who were offered both cookies and apples were more likely to choose the apple, if it had an Elmo sticker on it.[21] Researchers say that this phenomenon is worrisome, since most foods advertised on TV are unhealthy, and linked to a child's health and weight long-term.

Many studies have been conducted indicating an early exposure of food advertising to 2–13-year-old children has a link to the increasing amount of childhood obesity cases globally.[23] The large exposure to commercial food has been linked to problems for children worldwide, among these problems the issue of child obesity.[24] In 2015 Centres for disease control and prevention found that the amount of obese little children is more than double the amount it was 30 years ago.[25] There is a suggested correlation between televised advertisements and obesity. A study conducted by Frederick J. Zimmerman and Janice F. Bell made the statement that "Commercial television pushes little children to eat a large quantity of those foods they should consume least: sugary cereals, snacks, fast food and soda pop".[26] On average children between the ages of 8 and 12 see 21 fast food advertisements a day through televised media.[27] Children decide their food preference at an early moment through preliminary learning process and when they are exposed to large amounts of fast food advertising it has major long-lasting implications on their diet.[28] Children's gullibility and lack of knowledge around commercial food, allows them to easily trust what an advertisement says. As a result, companies are able to falsely display food items to children and what these children think to be healthy and nutritious is actually unhealthy being high in fats and sugars.[10]

The use of promotional characters and premium offers are often used as persuasive tools to market food to children.[29][30] A study from Australia found that the rate of promotional characters in advertisements is twice as high during popular younger children's programs in comparison to popular older children's programs. Premium offers is another persuasive marketing which includes competitions, giveaways and vouchers, the same study found that unhealthy food advertisements contain 18 times as many premium offers during young children's program in comparison to old children's programs.[31]

Additionally, several studies have identified that the amount of fruit and vegetables consumed decreases as television viewing time increases.[32] Excessive television viewing often correlates to poor diet quality as a result.[33]

The World Health Organization suggested that companies and organizations make a reduction of "food and beverage marketing directed at little children that are high in sugar, fat, and sodium in order to help reduce the burden of obesity worldwide."[34]

In Canada, the majority of advertising is controlled by companies themselves.[34] In April 2007, 16 of the largest food and beverages companies formed an initiative known as The Canadian Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative. The companies decided that each would require that at least 50% of advertisements targeted at children under the age of 12 years' old would contain "healthier dietary choices".[34] Studies have shown that exposing children to healthy food advertisements had a positive impact on their attitude towards healthy food whereas when unhealthy food advertisements were shown alongside healthy food advertisements had a negative impact on their attitude towards healthy food.[35]

In Australia, there is a self-regulatory code toward children's exposure to food advertising. This study was that the proportion of non-core foods advertised decrease by eighteen percent from a previous study from before the self-regulatory code was introduced.[23] This code was created because of the negative impact that the advertising of unhealthy food has on children. The self-regulatory code regulates the use of promotion, popular characters, and unsuitable material during time periods dedicated to children's television programs. The code does not monitor the types of food that may be advertised to children and does not apply to times when a high number of children are viewing such as a sports match. Since the code was introduced the rate of non-core fast food advertising has decreased as seen in the other study mentioned. The self-regulatory code only covers a small time period and range of food. An improved marketing approach would be limiting advertising on a wider range on fast food not just those designated as children's meals. This study also saw that advertisement which promotes healthier alternatives often still have some non-core foods present.[36]

The Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative (CFBAI)[37] is a voluntary program implemented in 2007 in the United States, in response to public health concerns and food companies have promised to advertise healthier dietary choices in child-directed advertising. The advertising of candy to children appeared that it would decrease as 4 large candy manufacturers, Mars, Hershey, Kraft, and Nestle pledged to CFBAI that they would not advertise any candy product to children. Rather than the reduction of Candy advertising, a 65% increase in candy-related advertisements in 2011 than in 2007 before the CFBAI was introduced. A fault with the CFBAI is that it regulates advertising directed at children, many children are exposed to advertisements for candy during programs popular for a wider range of people. Increased participation in CFBAI and a clearer definition of what child-directed advertising is, will be required for a reduction in the exposure of children unhealthy foods.[38]

In the European Union, there was a concern for the quantity and type of television food advertising that children are exposed to. In 2010, the Audiovisual Media Services Directive[39] was created as a centerpiece of the regulation of advertising unhealthy food and drinks in or accompanying children's programs. The directive does not imply consistent regulations across Member states. It does state the "Member States and the Commission shall encourage media service providers to develop codes of conduct regarding inappropriate audiovisual commercial communications, accompanying or included in children's programs, of foods and beverages containing nutrients and substances with a nutritional or physiological effect".[40] Although there isn't a definition of a child and unhealthy food which is shared within the European countries, there is a consistent want for regulation. Each country implements a variation in the strength of its regulations, based on the framework is created from the directive. Each country has a different legal point of view toward marketing practices, television regulations and the protection of minors. The individual European Union's Member States interpretation of the Directive is left to the national regulators to set a clear degree of regulatory protection. This is set by the regulator along with the industry and broadcasters themselves who interpret the previsions. This results in a national regulation of advertising to children that considers the nations legal and cultural traditions as well as economic and political objectives, which do not always compare across member states. Some member states impose a partial ban on advertising in children programs, where others prohibit the showing of sponsorship logo in children programs.[41]

• Advertisements in schools
• Child development
• Comic book advertisement
• Food marketing toward children
• Toy advertising