Battle of Saint-Malo

As part of the planning for Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy, Saint-Malo was identified by Allied planners as one of the ports which could be used to land supplies for the Allied ground forces in France. At this time, the planners envisioned that the initial invasion phase would be followed by a subsequent phase to secure a lodgment area which included all of the coastline and nearby inland areas, including Normandy and Brittany, between the Seine and the Loire rivers. It was believed that the lodgment area could be secured within three months after the invasion. Facilities constructed within the lodgment area and supplies and troops landed there would be used to support the subsequent liberation of France and invasion of Germany.[17] Accordingly, the Overlord plan specified that securing Brittany would be the main objective of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley's Twelfth United States Army Group after it managed to break out of Normandy. This task was assigned to the Third Army which was commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton.[18] The planners believed that it would be possible to land 3,000 tons of supplies per day at Saint-Malo, and another 6,000 tons per day at the ports in the region around the town such as Cancale. This would allow the Saint-Malo area to be the main port for the Third Army.[19]

Following the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 the Allies and Germans fought a prolonged campaign in the region. The German forces managed to block the Allies from breaking out into France for almost two months, but suffered heavy casualties in the process.[20] In late July the American forces in the west of the Normandy region launched the Operation Cobra offensive, which led to a collapse in the German positions. Large numbers of highly mobile American units passed through the town of Avranches and rapidly penetrated into the interior of France.[21] Saint-Malo was attacked by Allied aircraft on 17 July and 1 August.[22] As the Allies broke out, the resistance in Brittany was activated on 2 August. By mid-month resistance units had seized most of Brittany outside of the towns, including strategically important roads and bridges, and comprised approximately 35,000 armed fighters.[23] The United States Navy had responsibility for patrolling the Gulf of Saint-Malo, and American destroyers and torpedo boats engaged German coastal craft in the area on several occasions during early August.[24]

The collapse of the German Army in France as Allied forces broke out of Normandy in early August led to a change in plans. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force, decided on 2 August that the main effort should be encircling the German forces to the south-east of Normandy rather than securing Brittany. On 3 August Bradley directed Patton to assign only a "minimum of forces" to Brittany, and advance to the east.[18] VII Corps under Major General Troy Middleton was given responsibility for Brittany.[25] Bradley initially directed that Saint-Malo be captured as part of the advance into Brittany. However, he acquiesced to Patton's preference of to securing as much of the region as possible before beginning siege operations to capture the fortified towns.[26]

Prior to the Allied landings in Normandy, the 77th Infantry Division (77. Infantrie-Division) was stationed in the Saint-Malo area. This unit was dispatched to Normandy soon after D-Day, and suffered heavy casualties in the fighting there. The remnants of the division returned to Saint-Malo in late July, where it was reinforced with two anti-partisan units, Eastern Battalion 602 (Ost-Batallion 602) and Security Battalion 1220 (Sicheerungs-Bataillion 1220).[27] It was later sent forward again as part of an ad hoc force which unsuccessfully attempted to stop the American breakout at Avranches.[27][28]

At the time of the battle, the German force in Saint-Malo comprised approximately 12,000 personnel. German Army units included the remnants of the 77th Infantry Division, which had withdrawn again into the Saint-Malo area, the 3rd Battalion of the 266th Infantry Division's 897th Grenadier Regiment, Eastern Battalion 602, Eastern Battalion 636 and Security Battalion 1220. Luftwaffe (German air force) units in the area comprised the 15th Flak Regiment and several other air defense units. Kriegsmarine forces included two coastal artillery units, Navy Artillery Regiment 260 (Marine-Artillerie-Abteilung 260) and Army Coast Battalion 1271 (Heeres-Kusten-Bataillon 1271).[2]

Extensive fortifications had been constructed in the Saint-Malo area. The defenses of Saint-Malo included the city walls, which enclosed the former island and included thick stone ramparts on the seaward side. The landward entrance to the historic town was protected by a fortified chateau that had once been the home of Anne of Brittany. The Fort de la Cite d'Aleth, which had originally been designed by the great fortification engineer Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban and was designated the Citadel (Zitadelle) by the Germans, was located on a rocky promontory between Saint-Malo and St. Servan-sur-Mer; Aulock used it for his headquarters during the battle. Several fortresses were located on the approaches to Saint-Malo, including Fort la Varde at the Pointe de la Varde (fr) on the coast, the St. Ideuc strongpoint to the east of Paramé and fortifications on St. Joseph's Hill to the south-east of the town. Artillery in the fortifications on Cézembre provided support. Barbed wire and other obstructions had been placed on the beaches in the area to deter amphibious landings. The Germans had also planned to dig an antitank ditch across the Saint-Malo Peninsula and fill it with water, but this was incomplete. The fortifications in the Saint-Malo area were mutually supporting, and stocked with ammunition, water and food. Further supplies could be brought in by sea from the Channel Islands. While the German High Commander in the West judged that the Saint-Malo fortifications were the most complete of any in their command at the time of the battle, they were not finished. A key deficiency was that few artillery guns had been emplaced.[29][30]

The Saint-Malo garrison was designated Coastal Defense Group Rance (Küsten Verteidigung Gruppe Rance), and was divided into three sub-groups. Saint-Malo and nearby towns were defended by Coastal Defense Subgroup Saint-Malo (Küsten Verteidigung Untergruppe Saint-Malo, or KVU Saint-Malo), which manned 79 fortified positions. The area around the town of Dol-de-Bretagne to the southeast of Saint-Malo was the responsibility of Coastal Defense Subgroup Dol and included seven fortified positions. Coastal Defense Subgroup Cancale was assigned the section of the peninsular to the northeast of Saint-Malo and 16 fortified positions.[31] The sector on the western side of the Rance around Dinard was the responsibility of the remnants of 77th Infantry Division, which had been assigned a small number of StuG III assault guns from StuG Brigade 341. Several strong points had been constructed to bolster the area's defenses.[32] These included four fortified positions for artillery.[33] Cézembre was garrisoned by the 1st Battery of Navy Artillery Regiment 608, which was armed with several French 194mm calibre guns, anti-aircraft guns and other weapons.[34]

The fortress commander was Colonel Andreas von Aulock, a veteran of the Battle of Stalingrad and recipient of German's highest military honor the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.[35][4] Historian Randolph Bradham has described Aulock as being an "arrogant Nazi",[36] but he treated French civilians correctly.[4] He was disappointed to have been assigned command of a fortress, as he would have preferred to lead mobile forces.[5] Aulock and the other German commanders in the Saint-Malo region were willing to obey their orders to continue the fighting until further resistance was impossible.[36] During the battle Aulock stated that "I was placed in command of this fortress. I did not request it. I will execute the orders I have received and, doing my duty as a soldier, I will fight to the last stone".[22]

A map of the Battle of Saint-Malo

An ad hoc unit designated Task Force A was the first American unit to enter the Saint-Malo area. This force had been established by Patton in late July and was tasked with rapidly capturing the bridges on the railway line which ran along the north coast of Brittany before they were demolished by German forces. Commanded by Brigadier General Herbert L. Earnest, it comprised the 15th Cavalry Group, 159th Engineer Battalion and headquarters of the 1st Tank Destroyer Brigade. The Task Force passed through Avranches on 3 August, and engaged German forces 2 miles (3.2 km) from Dol-de-Bretagne that day. The commander of the Cavalry Group was killed in the initial clash, and Earnest decided to bypass Dol-de-Bretagne to the south after learning from local civilians that the town was heavily defended.[37] Middleton directed that the Task Force probe the Saint-Malo defenses as it pushed west in order to investigate how strongly the town was held. This led to further fighting near Miniac, 7 miles (11 km) west of Dol-de-Bretagne. As the Americans advanced towards Saint-Malo, they encountered stronger defenses to the south of Châteauneuf-d'Ille-et-Vilaine. Due to the scale of the German forces, Earnest requested that Middleton urgently dispatch infantry to support his command. The 83rd Infantry Division's 330th Infantry Regiment was entering the area at that time, and reached Dol-de-Bretagne on the afternoon of 3 August. Due to the large number of German defensive position around the town, the regiment's commander decided to delay attacking it until the next day.[26]

The 330th Infantry Regiment assaulted Dol-de-Bretagne on the morning of 4 August, and quickly captured the town. Task Force A also continued to advance north towards Châteauneuf-d'Ille-et-Vilaine during the day. This led to very heavy fighting during which German coastal artillery and naval vessels in the Saint-Malo area fired on the American troops.[26]

Despite Patton's intention to avoid siege operations, Middleton believed that the German force at Saint-Malo was too strong to be safely bypassed, as it could potentially attack the supply lines supporting the forces advancing into Brittany.[26] As a result, he directed that the 83rd Infantry Division capture Saint-Malo. Patton overruled this, however, in the belief that the Germans would only make a token defense of the town and the 330th Regiment would be sufficient to take it. The Army commander preferred that the 83rd Infantry Division follow the 6th Armored Division to Brest.[38]

Events during the afternoon of 4 August proved that Middleton was correct. While the Germans withdrew north in the morning, further heavy fighting during the afternoon indicated that they were strengthening their positions. Accordingly, Middleton again ordered that the entire 83rd Infantry Division be concentrated in the Saint-Malo area and make a quick attack on the town in conjunction with Task Force A in the hope that this could crack the German defenses.[38] The remainder of the division arrived at Dol-de-Bretagne on the afternoon of 4 August, and its three regiments were deployed on the eastern side of the Rance.[39] The 83rd Infantry Division was led by Major General Robert C. Macon.[39]

Attacks made by the American forces on 5 August demonstrated that Saint-Malo would not fall quickly.[38] These engagements included an advance made by the 331st Infantry Regiment along the coast which it penetrated the first line of German defenses near Saint-Benoît-des-Ondes.[39] Châteauneuf-d'Ille-et-Vilaine was also captured, with Task Force A taking 655 prisoners. A battalion of the 329th Infantry Regiment crossed the Rance in assault boats as the first stage of an operation intended to rapidly capture Dinard. Due to heavy German resistance, this unit had to be rapidly withdrawn.[40] As it was clear that further fighting would be prolonged, Middleton directed that Task Force A disengage from the Saint-Malo area during the night of 5/6 August and resume its mission of securing the railway bridges.[38] An infantry battalion was detached from the 83rd Infantry Division to reinforce Task Force A.[38]

In early August, Bradley changed his views on capturing Saint-Malo again, and ordered that the town be captured. He believed that it would provide a useful port to supply the large American force in Brittany.[1] At this time the Americans under-estimated the size of German forces in Saint-Malo. While French personnel had advised them that there were around 10,000 Germans at Saint-Malo, American estimates ranged from 3,000 to 6,000. VIII Corps believed that the garrison comprised 5,000 personnel as of 12 August. In reality, more than 12,000 Germans were in the Saint-Malo area.[41] Nevertheless, the stubborn resistance demonstrated by the Germans during the early fighting around Saint-Malo convinced Middleton and Macon that it would be difficult to capture the town.[42]

Street fighting in Saint-Malo

Aulock also prepared for a lengthy battle. As the Americans approached, he rejected a proposal from local civilians that he surrender his command to prevent damage to the towns in the region.[40] On 3 August he told community leaders that most civilians would be expelled from Saint-Malo for their own safety. When the leaders asked him to declare the town an open city to avoid fighting, Aulock stated that he had raised this with his superiors but the German leader Adolf Hitler had replied ordering him to "fight to the last man". He also claimed that as his forces included armed boats which were operating near Saint-Malo, it was not possible to declare the town an open city as these vessels were legitimate targets for the Allies. During the evening of 5 August most of Saint-Malo's population departed the town, and entered areas controlled by the Americans.[22] As part of efforts to consolidate their positions, in the evening of 5 August German forces withdrew from Cancale as well as the town of Dinan on the western bank of the Rance.[40]

American troops made attacks towards Saint-Malo across the front line during 6 August. Despite support from artillery and aircraft, the pace of the advance was slow. By the afternoon the division was in contact with the main defenses of Saint-Malo, which included barbed wire, mine fields and machine gunners in pillboxes.[43] The advance brought the American troops within range of the guns on Cézembre, which opened fire. One of the first shells to be fired hit Saint-Malo Cathedral's spire and knocked it over.[22] Due to the slow progress, Middleton reinforced the 83rd Infantry Division that day with the 8th Infantry Division's 121st Infantry Regiment, a company of medium tanks and an artillery battalion. He also requested more air support.[43] The 121st Infantry Regiment was given responsibility for capturing Dinard.[44]

Saint-Malo was extensively damaged during 6 and 7 August. On the afternoon of 6 August multiple fires broke out across the town. French civilians believed that these were accidentally started by German troops while they were burning codebooks and other documents, and that SS personnel both refused to allow firefighters to put them out and lit further fires. Efforts to fight the fires were also complicated by the town's water supply being cut off by the Americans on that day, which was done in an attempt to induce the garrison to surrender.[22] A Kriegsmarine patrol vessel was also scuttled in the harbor during 6 August.[45] On the morning of 7 August the Germans completely destroyed Saint-Malo's harbour with explosives.[22] These actions resulted in fires which burned for the next week.[43]

The 83rd Infantry Division continued to advance slowly towards Saint-Malo between 7 and 9 August. The 330th Infantry Regiment found that the German strongpoint at St. Joseph's Hill in the center of the division's sector was impossible to attack with infantry.[43] This position was a quarry which had been converted into a fortification through the addition of tunnels and bunkers.[33] After being bombarded with artillery for two days, the 400 survivors of the German garrison surrendered on 9 August. After this position fell, the division was able to move rapidly towards the town. On the left of the division's sector, the 329th Infantry Regiment captured St. Servan-sur-Mer and reached the Citadel. On the right of the sector, the 331st Infantry Regiment secured Paramé and cut off the garrisons of St. Ideuc and Fort la Varde. By the end of 9 August, the 83rd Infantry Division had captured around 3,500 prisoners but still faced German forces in multiple fortified positions.[43]

Free French forces surrounded Dinan on 6 August and found that several hundred Germans had remained in the town. The Germans were unwilling to surrender to Free French troops, but indicated that they would do so for Americans.[40] On 7 August, the 121st Infantry Regiment crossed the Rance to begin its advance on Dinard and a party from the regiment took the surrender of the Germans at Dinan. As the 121st Regiment advanced north from Dinan it found that all roads in the region were heavily defended. The German positions comprised roadblocks, well camouflaged strongpoints, minefields and pillboxes, all supported by heavy artillery fire. Progress was slow, with it taking until the afternoon of 8 August for the regiment's 3rd Battalion to capture the village of Pleurtuit 4 miles (6.4 km) from Dinard.[44]

Soon after Pleurtuit was captured, German StuG IIIs supported by infantrymen launched an attack which cut the roads to the village and isolated the 3rd Battalion, 121st Infantry Regiment.[44][46] Attempts by the regiment's 1st Battalion to break through were unsuccessful. In response to this action, Macon judged that the 121st Infantry Regiment's performance was unimpressive and there was a need to reinforce it. He decided to give priority to capturing Dinard after St. Joseph's Hill was secured due to the need to rescue the isolated battalion, eliminate the German artillery in the area and prevent Saint-Malo's garrison from escaping across the Rance.[44] Accordingly, he transferred the 331st Infantry Regiment to the Dinard sector and took personal control of operations there.[47]

The two American regiments began their attack on Dinard on 11 August. German resistance remained stubborn, and little progress was made that day. The next day the German commander in the Dinard sector, Colonel Bacherer, rejected a demand made by Macon that he surrender and stated that he would fight "for every stone".[47] The 331st Infantry Regiment finally broke through German positions near Pleurtuit on the afternoon of 12 August, and rescued the 3rd Battalion of the 121st Regiment. During the period it was isolated, the battalion had fought off several German attacks and suffered 31 killed and 106 wounded.[48]

The American troops continued their attacks on 13 August, which involved isolating and destroying individual pillboxes. Both regiments entered Dinard the next day. The Dinard position was liquidated on 15 August, with the Americans securing the town and nearby villages. Almost 4,000 Germans, including Bacherer, were captured during the operation.[49]

American artillerymen firing a 3-inch gun M5 at a German position in Saint-Malo

The remainder of the 83rd Division continued its advance on Saint-Malo during the attacks on the Dinard area. These operations were commanded by the division's assistant commander while Macon was focused on Dinard.[49] While it was no longer considered feasible to use Saint-Malo's port, it was believed to be necessary to capture the fortifications in the area to prevent German artillery from attacking Allied shipping using nearby ports.[50] Before the walled town and the Citadel were attacked, it was decided to capture Fort la Varde and St. Ideuc which were mutually supporting positions. One of two battalions under the control of the 330th Infantry Regiment at this time began the attack on the St. Ideuc position on 9 August. After three days of artillery bombardments and infantry attacks first on pillboxes and then the position itself, St. Ideuc's 160 surviving defenders surrendered on the afternoon of 12 August. The battalion immediately began attacking Fort la Varde, whose 100 surviving defenders also surrendered on the evening of 13 August.[51]

The other battalion under the 330th Infantry Regiment attacked towards Saint-Malo, with the goal of capturing the causeway which linked the town to Paramé. This led to house to house fighting, with the American infantry advancing with support from tanks, tank destroyers and engineers. The ruins of Saint-Malo's casino were captured on 11 August. The Americans were then faced with the challenge of crossing the exposed 1,000-yard (910 m)-long causeway to assault the well defended chateau on the landward side of Saint-Malo.[51]

The chateau was bombarded by artillery and air attacks for two days, with this having little apparent effect on the defenders. A truce was agreed for the afternoon of 13 August to allow around 1000 French civilians and 500 hostages who had been held by the Germans to be evacuated.[51] The 330th Infantry Regiment assaulted Saint-Malo on the morning of 14 August. Under the cover of an intensive artillery bombardment and a smokescreen, a battalion charged across the causeway and entered the walled town. The few Germans in the town were quickly captured, but the chateau held out until the afternoon when its defenders surrendered; 150 were captured.[52] On 16 August American infantrymen captured the last remaining German positions on the Saint-Malo peninsula other than the Citadel, Fort National and Grand Bey.[53] By the end of the battle, Saint-Malo was in ruins, with 683 of the 865 buildings in the old town having been destroyed.[54]

German prisoners of war being escorted at Saint-Malo on 18 August

The Citadel was a formidable position. It had been constructed by adding interconnected blockhouses to improve the defenses of the Fort de la Cite d'Aleth. The thick walls of the Citadel were almost impervious to air attacks and artillery, and it included large quantities of water, food and other supplies. The garrison was not strongly armed, with the defenses including 18 or 20 machine guns and a small number of mortars, but the weapons were skillfully emplaced. Macon was aware that it would be difficult to neutralize the Citadel from an early stage in the battle.[55]

American artillery and Allied aircraft began bombarding the Citadel during the assault on Saint-Malo. Shortages of ammunition disrupted the artillery bombardments, however, and the air attacks proved ineffective. Attempts by an American psychological warfare unit to persuade the Germans to surrender were unsuccessful, and Aulock also rejected entreaties from a captured German chaplain and a female French civilian with whom he had a close relationship.[56]

On 11 August, a rifle company from the 329th Infantry Regiment which had been reinforced with engineers and three Free French soldiers assaulted the Citadel after it was attacked by medium bombers. Some of the troops penetrated into the interior of the fortification, but withdrew after determining that the bombardment had not breached the main defenses.[57] Artillery attacks continued over the next few days, and two specially trained 96-man strong assault groups made another assault on 15 August after the Citadel was attacked again by medium bombers. This attack was repelled by machine gun fire.[58]

Following the failure of the assault on 15 August, Macon ordered an intensification of the artillery bombardment. Two 8-inch guns were emplaced less than 1,500 yards (1,400 m) from the citadel so that they could target individual portholes and vents. Mortar bombardments also increasingly used white phosphorus rounds. An air attack using napalm was planned for the afternoon 17 August.[59] This was to be one of the first times napalm bombs were used in combat.[60][61] Shortly before the air strike was scheduled, a white flag appeared over the Citadel and a party of German soldiers emerged from it to inform the Americans that Aulock wished to surrender. The air strike was diverted to attack Cézembre, and Aulock and 400 other Germans were taken prisoner. Aulock gave the destruction caused by the 8-inch guns and a collapse in the garrison's morale as his reasons for surrendering.[59] This marked the end of German resistance in the Saint-Malo area, aside from the Cézembre garrison which continued to hold out. By this time the 83rd Infantry Division had captured more than 10,000 prisoners. Its casualties were relatively light.[62]

The German positions on Cézembre were attacked by Allied bombers on 6 and 11 August. VIII Corps artillery also began shelling the island from 9 August.[6] Following Aulock's surrender and the napalm attack, Macon sent a party of personnel to Cézembre on 18 August to request its surrender. The garrison commander, Oberleutnant Richard Seuss, refused to surrender on the grounds that he had been ordered to continue to fight and still had supplies of ammunition.[34][63] The American party observed that the German positions appeared to have been badly damaged by the bombardments.[64]

Napalm exploding on Cézembre during the 31 August air raids

No further attacks were made against Cézembre for another week, when it was decided to eliminate the German positions there. The 330th Infantry Regiment was directed to being preparations for an amphibious assault.[64] To transport the troops, 15 US Navy landing craft, vehicle, personnel were moved by truck from Omaha Beach in Normandy to Saint-Malo.[65] Aerial attacks resumed on 30 August, and a large attack involving 300 heavy bombers and 24 Lockheed P-38 Lightnings armed with napalm was made the next day. Artillery bombardments were focused on the island's water tanks. Seuss refused to surrender again during another truce on 31 August.[64]

A major air and naval attack took place on 1 September. American and British medium bombers attacked the island, followed by 33 napalm-armed Lightnings. The British battleship HMS Warspite and American artillery then shelled Cézembre. Another message was transmitted to Seuss requesting that he surrender, but he again refused. However, the next day, as the 330th Infantry Regiment was preparing to attack, a white flag appeared over the island and Seuss surrendered. The American landing craft instead evacuated the 323 surviving members of the garrison. Seuss gave the destruction of Cézembre's water distilling plant as the reason for his surrender.[64]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liberation of Saint-Malo.

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