China–Portugal relations

China–Portugal relations (Portuguese: Relações entre a República Portuguesa e a República Popular da China or Relações China-Portugal, simplified Chinese: 葡萄牙共和国与中华人民共和国的关系 or 中葡关系; traditional Chinese: 葡萄牙共和國與中華人民共和國的關係 or 中葡關係; pinyin: Pútáoyá gònghéguó yǔ zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó de guānxì or zhōng pú guānxì), can be traced back all the way to 1514 during the Ming dynasty of China. Relations between the modern political entities of the People's Republic of China and the Portuguese Republic officially began on 2 February 1979.[1] China and Portugal established the comprehensive strategic partnership in 2005.[2]

China–Portugal relations

China
Portugal

Despite Portugal's relatively small economy and global influence compared to China, the Chinese government has expressed interest in developing relations with Portugal, granting the nation a similar treatment to other major European countries. Both nations maintain friendly relations, which is due to three main reasons- the first being the Portuguese handover of Macau in 1999, the second being the Portuguese prominence in the Lusophone, which includes nations China wishes to promote relations with, and third being the extensive history of Portuguese presence in Asia.[3]

History

See also: Transfer of sovereignty over Macau

Ming dynasty

Sino-Portuguese relations began when Jorge Álvares arrived in the southern Chinese city of Guangzhou in 1513.[4] Around then, Portugal established trading activities in southern China, gradually expanded into Macau and paid rent to the Ming Empire.[4]

The first official Portuguese visit was Fernão Pires de Andrade mission to Guangzhou (1517–1518). It was fairly successful, and the local Chinese authorities allowed the embassy, led by Tomé Pires and brought by de Andrade's flotilla, to proceed to Beijing.[5] Tomé Pires' impression of the Chinese was that they were "white like us [brancos como nós], the greater part of them dressing in cotton cloth and silk".[6] His full account also compares them to the Germans and the women whom he describes as "of our whiteness" and similar in appearance to Spanish ladies.[6]

Duarte Barbosa (1480–1521) gives a similar account of Chinese people: "great merchants, white men and well-made [huomini bianchi, grandi & ben disposti]; their women are very beautiful but both the men and women have small eyes, and the men's beards contain only three or four hairs and no more".[6]

Relations between the Portuguese and Chinese soured when Fernão's brother Simão de Andrade arrived with a fleet at Guangzhou in 1519. He disregarded the country's laws and customs and built a fort on Tamão Island under the pretext of a threat of piracy. He built a gallows there and executed one of his own sailors there for some offense, which greatly offended the local Chinese authorities. He attacked a Chinese official who protested the Portuguese captain's demands that his vessels should take precedence in trade with China before those from other countries.[7] The most offensive action however was Simão's engagement in the slave trade and the purchase of Chinese children for sale abroad.[8] False rumours spread that the disappearing children were cannibalised[7] after they had been roasted by the Portuguese.[9]

It was more than two years, however, before Thome Pires could get permission to make the journey to Pekin. Fernao Pires left on his return with a very rich cargo in September 1518; his stay had not, owing to his discretion, been marked by any unpleasant incident. This expedition did not penetrate much further than Canton; one of the ships sailed to explore the Lew Chews, but failing to make good her passage, returned to the mainland at Fuhkien, where her traffic was as successful as that of her sister ships in Canton.

In August 1519, Simao d'Andrade, brother of Fernao Pires, made another voyage to Canton. He found Thome Pires still awaiting permission to travel to Pekin,—a permission which arrived finally in January 1520. Simao d'Andrade was a pompous braggart, he built a small fort and erected a gallows, and used the latter to hang one of his sailors—all acts which scandalized the Chinese feelings of sovereignty. He tried to prevent any ships of other nations getting cargo before his own, and he and his officers outraged the Chinese by freely buying boys and girls who, as it turned out, had been kidnapped. To crown all, on the death of the Emperor of China, Simao refused to leave the port when ordered. Several Portuguese were killed in the streets of Canton, and although at the end of June 1521 they were successful in a naval skirmish, they had to leave on 8 September 1521, fighting their way out to sea. Matters were left hopelessly embroiled, and every vessel reaching Chinese shores with a Portuguese on board was confiscated.

These events reacted on the unfortunate Thome Pires. He reached Pekin, after a year's journey, in January 1521, but his reception was not encouraging. The news of the capture of Malacca, over which, through Siam, the Chinese claimed some shadowy influence, and of the earlier proceedings of Simao d'Andrade at Canton, had preceded him. 1 He was treated as a spy and refused even the privilege granted to other envoys, who were allowed to kneel and bow five times to the wall of the palace behind which the Emperor was said to be living. He was sent back to Canton with orders that he was to be imprisoned until Malacca was restored, and there after a few years he died.[10][11]

"The rise of Portuguese power in India, 1497–1550" by Richard Stephen Whiteway (1899):

A Chinese porcelain vase made in 1552 for Jorge Anriques, a Portuguese trading ship captain

'According to a Chinese account '-foreigners from the West called Fa-lan-ki. who said they had tribute, abruptly entered the Bogue and by their tremendously loud guns shook the place far and near. This was reported at court, and an order returned to drive them away immediately and stop the trade."[12]

"Historic Macao" by Carlos Augusto Montalto Jesus (1902):

The annexation of Tamou, apparently projected when Jorge Alvares erected the padrao there, was boldly attempted by Simao de Andrade, another hero of Malacca, who in 1518 reached Tamou with a ship and three junks. For the purpose of defending the place against piratical attacks, he constructed a fort; and as a deterrent, he raised gallows on an adjacent islet, where a delinquent was eventually put to death with all the impressive formalities of an execution in Portugal—assumptions of sovereignty which gave great umbrage to the Chinese government. While several towns were sacked by native marauders in the name of foreigners, the Portuguese were rendered still more hated through sensational outcries to the effect that many Cantonese boys and girls of good families had been kidnapped and sold to Simao de Andrade for the purpose of being eaten roasted. The anti-foreign prejudices thus maliciously stirred were accentuated by further high-handed measures: Simao de Andrade controlled the trade and shipping of Tamou, refused to pay duties, and ill-used a customs official severely.4 It was obviously this Andrade who thrashed a mandarin and thereby roused such animosity that, according to Gaspar da Cruz, it ended in his desperate retreat with the loss of some vessels; whilst as related by Couto, an imperial edict in big gilt characters was posted over the gate of Canton forbidding admittance to "long-bearded and large-eyed men". In almost every account of early Portuguese intercourse with China, Simlio de Andrade is held up to execration as an inhuman, wanton marplot. For his assumption of authority at Tamou, no justification is found in the exasperating intolerance of raandarindom, the rife piracy, and the necessity of founding a Portuguese stronghold on such perilous aud inhospitable shores; and while credence is readily given to every aspersion, the alleged iniquities are not even confronted with noteworthy antecedents: that Simao de Andrade, like Ferniio Peres de Andrade, was one of those distinguished officers whose sense of justice and humanity prompted them to protest against the outrageous execution of Kuy Dias; that for this reason they were put in chains[13][14]

"Historic Macao", by Carlos Augusto Montalto Jesus (1902):

Young Chinese boys and girls were bought by Simao to be sold as slaves.[15]

The king of Portugal, desirous of the trade of China, sent an ambassador and one of his captains to propose a commercial alliance. The ambassador was gladly received, and sent by land to Nankin, and the honourable behaviour of Pedro de Andrade gained the important traffic of the harbour of Canton. On this officer's return to India, Sequeyra the governor sent Simon de Andrade, brother to Pedro, with five ships to China; and whatever were his instructions, the absurdity of bis actions was only equalled by his gross insolence. As if he had arrived among beings of an inferior order, he assumed an authority like that which is claimed by man over the brute creation. He seized the island of Tamou, opposite to Canton. Here he erected a fort and a gallows ; and while he plundered the merchants, the wives and daughters of the principal inhabitants were dragged from their friends to his garrison, and the gibbet punished resistance. Nor did he stop even here. The Portuguese in India wanted slaves, and Andrade thought he had found the proper nursery. He published his design to buy the youth of both sexes, and in this inhuman traffic ha was supplied by the most profligate of the natives. These proceedings, however, were soon known to tha emperor of China, and the Portuguese ambassador and his retinue died the death of spies. Andrade was attacked by the Chinese itao, or admiral, and escaped with much loss, by the favour of a tempest, after being forty days harassed by a fleet greatly superior to his own. Next year Alonzo de Melo, ignorant of these transactions, entered the harbour of Canton with four vessels. But his ships were instantly seized, and the crews massacred, as spies and robbers by the enraged Chinese. And though the Portuguese afterwards were permitted to some trade with China, it was upon very restricted and disgraceful conditions1*, conditions which treated them as a nation of pirates, as men who were not to bs trusted unless fettered and watched.[16][17]

"The works of the English poets, from Chaucer to Cowper: including the series edited with prefaces, biographical and critical" by Samuel Johnson (1810) and "The Percy anecdotes: Original and select" by Sholto Percy, Reuben Percy (1826)

"Even the very lascars and scullions of the Portuguese purchase and carry slaves away. Hence it happens that many of them die on the voyage, because they are heaped up upon each other, and if their masters fall sick (these masters are sometimes Kaffirs and negroes of the Portuguese), the slaves are not cared for; it even often happens that the Kaffirs cannot procure the necessary food for them. These scullions give a scandalous example by living in debauchery with the girls they have bought, and whom some of them introduce into their cabins on the passage to Macao. I here omit the excesses committed on the lands of the pagans, where the Portuguese spread themselves to recruit youths and girls, and where they live in such a fashion that the pagans themselves are stupefied at it."[18][19]

"A history of Japan during the century of early foreign intercourse, 1542–1651" by James Murdoch, Isoh (1903)

As a result, the Chinese posted an edict banning men with Caucasian features from entering Canton.[14] The Chinese responded by killing multiple Portuguese in Canton and drove the Portuguese back to sea.[10]

After the Sultan of Bintan detained several Portuguese, The Chinese then executed 23 members of Tomé Pires' ill-fated embassy, and threw the rest into prison where they resided in squalid, sometimes fatal conditions.[20]

After the Portuguese bribed their way into obtaining a trade mission in Ningbo and Quanzhou, they inflicted savage behaviour against the Chinese, and raided the Chinese ports. In retaliation, in 1545 the entire Portuguese community of Ningbo were exterminated by Chinese forces.[20][21][22][23][24] The Portuguese began trading in Ningbo around 1522. By 1542, the Portuguese had a sizable community in Ningbo (or, more likely, on nearby small islands). Portuguese activities from their Ningbo base included pillaging and attacking multiple Chinese port cities around Ningbo for plunder and spoil. They also enslaved people during their raids.[25] The resulting complaints made it to the province's governor who commanded the settlement destroyed in 1548.[26][27][28][29]

In 1564, Portugal commanded the trade of India, Japan, and China, though their pride was deeply shocked at the supreme indifference with which the Chinese treated them. Their atrocities at Ningpo and Macao, and their subsequent servility, had opened the eyes of the Celestials to their true character, and unfortunately for other European adventurers, they had come to the conclusion that all western nations were alike. The senate of Macao complained to the viceroy of Goa, of the contempt with which the Chinese authorities treated them, confessing however that, "it was owing more to the Portuguese themselves than to the Chinese". The Chinese were obliged to restrict the commerce of Portugal to the port of Macao, in 1631.[30]

The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction, Volume 7, 1845

The later antagonism of Chinese toward foreigners was a result of the "reprehensible" behavior of first Portuguese who made contact.[31] Though the frequency of Portuguese piracy was not comparable to the surge in Wokou attacks experienced after the Ming Dynasty attempted to enforce its Haijin policy.[32]

However, with gradual improvement of relations and aid given against the Wokou pirates along China's shores, by 1557 Ming China finally agreed to allow the Portuguese to settle at Macau in a new Portuguese trade colony.[33] The Malay Sultanate of Johor also improved relations with the Portuguese and fought alongside them against the Aceh Sultanate.

Sino-Malay alliance against Portugal

The Malay Malacca Sultanate was a tributary state and ally to Ming Dynasty China. In 1511, Portugal conquered Malacca, a Chinese tributary state, and the Chinese responded with force against Portugal.

The Chinese government imprisoned and executed multiple Portuguese envoys after it had tortured them in Guangzhou. The Malaccans had informed the Chinese of the Portuguese seizure of Malacca, and the Chinese responded with hostility toward the Portuguese. The Malaccans told the Chinese of the deception that the Portuguese had used by disguising plans for conquering territory as mere trading activities and told of all the atrocities committed by the Portuguese.[34] The Malaccan Sulatan had been swayed by the international Muslim trading community that the Portuguese posed a grave threat after their capture of Goa. Denied the right to trade and attacked by the Malaccan authorities, the Portuguese resorted to force in Malacca, as in India, to establish themselves as a trading power.[35][36]

The Malaccan Sultan's lodging of a complaint against the Portuguese invasion to the Chinese Emperor made the Portuguese greeted with hostility from the Chinese when they arrived in China.[37][38][39][40][41] The Malaccan Sultan, based in Bintan after fleeing Malacca, sent a message to the Chinese, which combined with Portuguese banditry and violent activity in China, led the Chinese authorities to execute 23 Portuguese and to torture the rest of them in jails. After the Portuguese had set up posts for trading in China and committed raids in China, the Chinese responded by completely exterminating the Portuguese in Ningbo and Quanzhou[20] Pires, a Portuguese trade envoy, was among those who died in the Chinese dungeons.[21][22][23]

The Chinese defeated a Portuguese fleet at the First Battle of Tamão (1521), killing and capturing so many Portuguese that they had to abandon their junks and retreat with only three ships and escaped back to Malacca only because a wind scattered the Chinese ships as the Chinese launched a final attack.[42]

The Chinese effectively held the Portuguese embassy hostage and used it as a bargaining chip to demand the Portuguese to restore the deposed Malaccan Sultan (King) to his throne.[43]

The Chinese proceeded to execute several Portuguese by beating and strangling them and by torturing the rest. The other Portuguese prisoners were put into iron chains and kept in prison.[44] The Chinese confiscated all of the Portuguese property and goods in the Pires embassy's possession.[45]

In 1522, Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho was appointed commander of another Portuguese fleet sent to establish diplomatic relations.[46] The Chinese defeated the Portuguese ships led by Coutinho at the Second Battle of Tamão (1522). Many Portuguese were captured and ships destroyed during the battle. The Portuguese were forced to retreat to Malacca.[47][48]

The Chinese forced Pires to write letters for them that demanded the Portuguese to restore the deposed Malaccan Sultahn back to his throne. The Malay ambassador to China was to deliver the letter.[49]

The Chinese had sent a message to the deposed sultan (king) of Malacca on the fate of the Portuguese embassy, which the Chinese held prisoner. When they received his reply, the Chinese officials proceeded to executed the Portuguese embassy by slicing their bodies into multiple pieces. Their genitalia were inserted into the oral cavity. The Portuguese were executed in public in multiple areas in Guangzhou deliberately by the Chinese to show that the Portuguese were insignificant in their eyes.[50] When more Portuguese ships landed and were seized by the Chinese, the Chinese then executed them as well by cutting off the genitalia and beheading the bodies and forcing their fellow Portuguese to wear the body parts, while the Chinese celebrated with music. The genitalia and heads were displayed strung up for display in public, and they were then discarded.[51]

In response to Portuguese and their establishnent of bases in Fujian at Wuyu island and Yue Harbour at Zhangzhou, Shuangyu Island in Wenzhou and Nan'ao Island in Guangdong, the Imperial Chinese Right Deputy Commander Zhu Wan exterminated Traders and settlers and forcibly razed the Shuangyu Portuguese base to prohibit trading with foreigners by sea.[52]

Chinese traders boycotted Malacca after it fell under Portuguese control, and some Chinese in Java assisted in Muslim attempts to reconquer the city from Portugal by using ships. The Java Chinese participation in failed attempted to conquer the Portuguese Malacca was recorded in "The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon"[53] trading the Chinese did business with Malays and Javanese instead of the Portuguese.[54]

Hostility from the Chinese because of trafficking in Chinese slaves caused a 1595 law to be passed by Portugal that banned selling and buying of Chinese slaves.[55] On 19 February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese of either sex.[56][57]

The deliverance of Macau

Finally, in the early 1550s, the Canton authorities recognized the strategic importance of the “frangues” - these strange barbarians, from far away, skilled in trade, effective in war, but few in number. Gradually, they proved to be useful and less threatening. Disorganized people, acting privately, the adventurers of the China Sea gained negotiating power when the Crown intervened in the Sino-Japanese business and monopolized the China - Japan route. The nobleman Leonel de Sousa arrived in the region in 1553 and managed to negotiate with the mandarins on behalf of all the Portuguese. In 1554, authorization was finally obtained for the establishment at the mouth of the Pearl River, ten years after they began to deal with silver and silk.[58]

Qing dynasty's Ningbo massacre of Portuguese settlers

During the Qing dynasty, the Ningbo authorities contracted Cantonese pirates to exterminate and massacre Portuguese who raided Cantonese shipping around Ningbo in the 1800s. The massacre was "successful", with 40 Portuguese dead and only 2 Chinese dead. It was dubbed the "Ningpo massacre" by an English correspondent, who noted that the Portuguese pirates had behaved savagely towards the Chinese and that the Portuguese authorities at Macau should have hindered the pirates.

Chinese Piracy

The decline of authority of the Qing dynasty allowed the rise of numerous pirate groups, active around the commercially important Pearl River Delta, that captured trade vessels, assaulted seaside populations or forced them to pay tribute, but did not interfere with European shipping initially. The most important of these pirate groups became the Red Flag Fleet which, under the leadership of Cheung Po Tsai, had clashed with Portuguese vessels in 1805, but in May 1807 suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of Portuguese lieutenant Pereira Barreto, commanding a two-ship squadron.[59]

After being defeated several time by the Portuguese Navy, on April 20, Quan Apon Chay formally delivered his fleet and weapons, which now numbered about 280 ships, 2,000 guns and over 25,000 men. The Portuguese claimed naught, which greatly impressed the Chinese. Cheung Po Tsai would in the future make formal visits to the Leal Senado of Macau to meet several of the Portuguese officers present at the fighting, among them Gonçalves Carocha.

Modern era
Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road Initiative

As China underwent turbulent times in the 19th and the 20th centuries, Portugal maintained its colony in Macau by stationing its troops, refusing to pay rent and opposing the ruling Qing Empire. In 1939, Mao Zedong described Portugal as a "miserable little country" in his book "The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party".[60] With the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, formal diplomatic relations were not officially instated until 1979, after the Carnation Revolution in Portugal had begun decolonization.[4] The Chinese government viewed Macau as Chinese territory under Portuguese administration.

Relations between Portugal and China began to improve as talks in relation to Macau's future were conducted and final agreement reach to return Macau to Chinese sovereignty in 1999.[1][61] After Macau returned to China, Portugal's ties with China have largely been cultural and economic exchanges.[62]

Bilateral relations

Trade between the two countries have increased since the resolution of the longstanding issue of Macau's future and the economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping in the early 1980s. In 2002, trade between the two countries was valued at $380 million.[1]

China's exports to Portugal are textile goods, garments, shoes, plastics, acoustic equipment, steel materials, ceramic goods and lighting equipment.[1] China is Portugal's ninth-largest trading partner.[63][64]

Portugal's exports to China are electric condensers and accessory parts, primary plastics, paper, medicinal, textile goods and wine.[1][63][65]

Portugal participated in Shanghai's Expo 2010 to boost bilateral trade further.[66]

Contemporary cultural exchanges

During the celebration of the Year of the Rooster, the Chinese Lunar New Year that fell on 28 January 2017, a huge rooster, the symbol of Portugal, created by famous Portuguese artist Joana Vasconcelos, was ferried to China from Lisbon to congratulate the Chinese with New Year greetings.[67]

Further reading

References
  1. China and Portugal, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 12 October 2003
  2. "China and Portugal". 8 January 2009. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009.
  3. Bernardo Futscher Pereira (2006). "Relações entre Portugal e a República Popular da China" (PDF). Educ. Steam Press, Byculla. pp. 66–67. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  4. "Macau - HISTORICAL BACKGROUND". www.country-data.com.
  5. Donald Ferguson, ed. (1902). Title Letters from Portuguese captives in Canton, written in 1534 & 1536: with an introduction on Portuguese intercourse with China in the first half of the sixteenth century. Educ. Steam Press, Byculla. pp. 11–13. According to Cortesão's later research, the letters were actually written in 1524.
  6. Keevak 2011, p. 27.
  7. Ferguson 1902, pp. 14–15
  8. Wills, 338.
  9. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xxxix. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. more charges, some of them quite fantastic, were being brought against the Portuguese. After telling us that one of the charges was that 'we bought kidnapped children of important people and ate them roasted'... Some early Chinese historians even go so far as to give vivid details of the price paid for the children and how they were roasted.
  10. Richard Stephen Whiteway (1899). The rise of Portuguese power in India, 1497–1550. WEST MINSTER ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO 2 WHITEHALL GARDENS: A. Constable. p. 339. Retrieved 14 December 2011. Simão de Andrade kidnapping.CS1 maint: location (link)
  11. Richard Stephen Whiteway (1899). The rise of Portuguese power in India, 1497–1550. WEST MINSTER ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO 2 WHITEHALL GARDENS: A. Constable. p. 340. Retrieved 14 December 2011. chinese shadowy influence malacca restored.CS1 maint: location (link)
  12. Carlos Augusto Montalto Jesus (1902). Historic Macao. HONGKONG: Kelly & Walsh, limited. p. 3. fa lan ki tribute.
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  14. Carlos Augusto Montalto Jesus (1902). Historic Macao. HONGKONG: Kelly & Walsh, limited. p. 5. Retrieved 14 December 2011. Simão de Andrade kidnapping.
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  16. Samuel Johnson (1810). Alexander Chalmers (ed.). The works of the English poets, from Chaucer to Cowper: including the series edited with prefaces, biographical and critical. Volume 21 of The Works of the English Poets: From Chaucer to Cowper, Including the Series Edited, with Prefaces, Biographical and Critical, by Dr. Samuel Johnson: and the Most Approved Translations. LONDON: J. Johnson. p. 559.
  17. Sholto Percy, Reuben Percy (1826). The Percy anecdotes: Original and select. Volume 18 of The Percy Anecdotes. VOL. LONDON: PRINTED FOR J. CUMBERLAND, 19. LUDGATE HILL.: G. Berger. p. 73. principal inhabitants were dragged from their friends to his garrison, and the gibbet punished resistance. Nor did he stop even here. The Portuguese in India wanted slaves, and Andrade thought he had found the proper nursery. He published his design to buy the youth of both sexes, and in this inhuman traffic, he was supplied by the most profligate of the natives. These proceedings, however, soon became known to the Emperor of China; several of the Portuguese were seized, and suffered an ignominious death; while Andrade himself escaped, with much loss, by the favour of a tempest, after being forty days harassed by a fleet greatly superior to his own. Not long after, Alonzo de Melo, ignorant of these transactions, entered the harbour of Canton with four vessels; but his ships were instantly seized, and the crews massacred by the enraged Chinese. The Chinese, however, were too politic a people to expel utterly any merchandize from their harbours. A few years having elapsed, the Portuguese who brought gold from Africa, and spices from India, were allowed to purchase the silks, porcelain, and tea, of China, at the ports of Sanciarn; and an event which refutes all the Jesuitical accounts of the greatness and power of the Chinese Empire, soon gave them a better settlement. A pirate, named Tchangsi-lao, made himself master of the little island of Macao. Here he built fleets which blocked up the ports of China, and laid siege to Canton itself. In this crisis of distress, the Chinese implored the assistance of the Portuguese, whom they had lately expelled as the worst of mankind. Two or three Portuguese ships effected what the potent empire of H China could not do, and the island of Macao was given them by the emperor, in reward for this eminent service.CS1 maint: location (link)
  18. James Murdoch; Isoh Yamagata; Asiatic Society of Japan (1903). Joseph Henry Longford; L. M. C. Hall (eds.). A history of Japan, Volume 2. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd. p. 243.
  19. James Murdoch; Isoh Yamagata (1903). A history of Japan during the century of early foreign intercourse, 1542–1651. KOBE, JAPAN : PUBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF THE "CHRONICLE.": Published at the Office of the "Chronicle". p. 243.
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  31. Nigel Cameron; Brian Brake (1965). Peking: a tale of three cities. Harper & Row. p. 105. Meanwhile, as things went from bad to worse with Ming government, the first Portuguese traders arrived in South China in 1514, forerunners of many others from European countries whose activities in China were eventually to contribute in large part to the fall of the Ch'ing, last of all the Chinese dynasties, and to the tardy conversion of Chinese life to a modern, in place of a medieval, outlook. The behavior of the Portuguese, who were at first well received by the Chinese, was so reprehensible that it set the pattern of later Chinese antagonism toward foreigners in general.
  32. Kung, James Kai-Sing; Ma, Chicheng (2014), "Autarky and the Rise and Fall of Piracy in Ming China", The Journal of Economic History, 74 (2): 509–534, doi:10.1017/S0022050714000345
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  37. Ahmad Ibrahim; Sharon Siddique; Yasmin Hussain, eds. (1985). Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 11. ISBN 9971-988-08-9.)
  38. Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Part 124. M. Nijhoff. p. 446. (University of Minnesota)
  39. Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Volume 124. 1968. p. 446. (the University of California)
  40. Alijah Gordon, Malaysian Sociological Research Institute (2001). The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago. Malaysian Sociological Research Institute. p. 136. ISBN 983-99866-2-7. (the University of Michigan)
  41. Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, Hague (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, Volume 124. M. Nijhoff. p. 446.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) (the University of Michigan)
  42. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xl. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. In the meantime, after the departure of Simão de Andrade, the ship Madalena, which belonged to D. Nuno Manuel, coming from Lisbon under the command of Diogo Calvo, arrived at Tamão with some other vessels from Malacca, among them the junk of Jorge Álvares, which the year before could not sail with Simão de Andrade's fleet, because she had sprung a leak..., the Chinese seized Vasco Calvo, a brother of Diogo Calvo, and other Portuguese who were in Canton trading ashore. On 27 June 1521 Duarte Coelho arrived with two junks at Tamão. Besides capturing some of the Portuguese vessels, the Chinese blockaded Diogo Calvo's ship and four other Portuguese vessels in Tamão with a large fleet of armed junks. A few weeks later Ambrósio do Rego arrived with two other ships. As many of the Portuguese crews had been killed in the fighting, slaughtered afterwards or taken prisoners, by this time there was not enough Portuguese for all the vessels, and thus Calvo, Coelho, and Rego resolved to abandon the junks in order the batteter to man the three ships. They set sail on 7 September and were attacked by the Chinese fleet, managing however to escape, thanks to a providential gale which scattered the enemy junks, and arrived at Malacca in October 1521. Vieira mentions other junks which arrived in China with Portuguese aboard; all were attacked, and the entire crews were killed fighting or were taken prisoners and slaughtered later.
  43. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xl. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. Finally Pires and his companions left Peking on 22 May and arrived in Canton on 22 Sept. 1521. Francisco de Budoia died during the journey. From Peking instructions were sent to Canton that the ambassador and his suite should be kept in custody, and that only after the Portuguese had evacuated Malacca and returned it to its king, a vassal of the Emperor of China, would the members of the embassy be liberated.
  44. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues: Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xli. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. But many others died in prison, some of hunger, many strangled, 'after carrying boards stating that they should die as sea-robbers', one struck on the head with a mallet, and others beaten to death. Pires and his companions arrived at Canton a fortnight after the three Portuguese ships had escaped from Tamão, and they found themselves in a most difficult position... "Tomé Pires replied that he had not come for that purpose, nor was it meet for him to discuss such a matter; that it would be evident from the letter he had brought that he had no knowledge of anything else.... With these questions he kept us on our knees for four hours; and when he had tired himself out, he sent each one back to the prison in which he was kept. On 14 August 1522 the Pochanci put fetters on the hands of Tomé Pires, and on those of the company he put fetters, and irons on their feet,
  45. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlii. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. clerks who were present wrote down ten and stole three hundred.... The goods that they took from us were twenty quintals of rhubarb, one thousand five hundred or six hundred rich pieces of silk, a matter of four thousand silk handkerchiefs which the Chinese call sheu-pa (xopas) of Nanking, and many fans, and also three arrobas of musk in powerder, one thousand three hundred pods of musk, four thousand odd taels of silver and seventy or eighty taels of gold and other pieces of silver, and all the cloths,
  46. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlii. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. Meanwhile from India, where the news of this state of affairs had not yet arrived, another fleet of four ships under the command of Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho sailed for China in April 1522. Countinho had left Lisbon just one year before, commissioned by Dom Manuel with a message of good-will to the Emperor of China, for which purpose he carried another ambassador with him.
  47. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xliii. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. Coutinho's fleet of six sail left Malacca on 10 July and arrived at Tamão in August 1522. They were soon attacked by the Chinese fleet. The Portuguese had many men killed and taken prisoners, two ships and the junk were lost, and after vain efforts to re-establish relations with the Cantonese authorities, Coutinho returned with the other ships to Malacca, where he arrived in the middle of October 1522. Though some chroniclers put the blame on the Chinese, Chang quotes Chinese sources which assert that the Portuguese should be held responsible for the outbreak of hostilities.
  48. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlvi. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. On fol. 108v. it is stated that Martim Afonso de Melo Coutinho went from Malacca to China in 1521, but in fol. 121 it is correctly said that he arrived in 1522.
  49. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xliii. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. According to Vieira the mandarins again ordered that Pires should write a letter to the King of Portugal, which the ambassador of the ex-king of Malacca should take to Malacca, in order that his country and people might be returned to their former master; if a satisfactory reply did not come, the Portuguese ambassador would not return. A draft letter in Chinese was sent to the imprisoned Portuguese, from which they wrote three letters, for King Manuel, the Governor of India and the Captain of Malacca. These letters were delivered to the Cantonese authorities on 1 October 1522. The Malay ambassador was not anxious to be the courier, nor was it easy to find another. At last a junk with fifteen Malays and fifteen Chinese sailed from Canton on 31 May 1523 and reached Pattani.
  50. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xliv. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. A message came to the king of Bintang from his ambassador [in Canton], and the man who brought it soon returned. The report which the king of Bintang was spreading in the country is that the Chinese intended to come against Malacca. This is not very certain, though there are things that may happen The man who brought a message to the king of Bintang 'soon returned', says Jorge de Albuquerque. Vieira tells us that the junk 'returned with a message from the king of Malacca, and reached Canton on 5 September' (fol.110V.). . . 'On the day of St. Nicholas [6 Dec.] in the year 1522 they put boards on them [the Portuguese prisoners] with the sentence that they should die and be exposed in pillories as robbers. The sentences said: "Petty sea robbers sent by the great robber falsely; they come to spy out our country; let them die in pillories as robbers." a report was sent to the king according to the information of the mandarins, and the king confirmed the sentence. On 23 Sept. 1523 these twenty-three persons were each one cut in pieces, to wit, heads, legs, arms, and their private members placed in their mouths, the trunk of the body being divided into two pices around the belly. In the streets of Canton,
  51. Tomé Pires; Armando Cortesão; Francisco Rodrigues (1990). Armando Cortesão (ed.). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack ... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlv. ISBN 81-206-0535-7. both those of Canton and those of the environs, in order to give them to understand that they thought nothing of the Portuguese, so that the people might not talk about Portuguese. Thus our ships were captured through two captains not agreeing, and so all in the ships were taken, they were all killed, and their heads and private members were carried on the backs of the Portuguese in front of the Mandarin of Canton with the playing of musical instruments and rejoicing, were exhibited suspended in the streets, and were then thrown into the dunghills.
  52. Qingxin Li (2006). Maritime silk road. 五洲传播出版社. p. 117. ISBN 7-5085-0932-3. From there they retreated to other islands off the coast of China including Nan'ao Island to the east of Guangdong, Shuangyu Island of Wenzhou in Zhejiang, Wuyu Island and Yue Harbor in Zhangzhou of Fujian, where they colluded with powerful and wealthy families, scoundrels of the sea and Japanese pirates, dealing in contraband and plundering. In 1547, the Ming court appointed Right Deputy Commander and imperial agent Zhu Wang as provincial commander in charge of Zhejiang and Fujian's naval defenses, strictly enforcing the ban on maritime trade and intercourse with foreign countries. Zhu Wan also destroyed the Portuguese fortress on Shuangyu Island and eradicated all Chinese and Foreign buccaneers.
  53. C. Guillot; Denys Lombard; Roderich Ptak, eds. (1998). From the Mediterranean to the China Sea: miscellaneous notes. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 179. ISBN 3-447-04098-X. Chinese authors have argued, the Malacca-Chinese were not treated too favorably by the Portuguese... it is generally true that Chinese ships tended to avoid Malacca after 1511, sailing to other ports instead. Presumably these ports were mainly on the east coast of the Malayan peninsula and on Sumatra. Johore, in the deep south of the peninsula, was another place where many Chinese went.... After 1511, many Chinese who were Muslims sided with other Islamic traders against the Portuguese; according to The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon, Chinese settlers living on northern Java even became involved in counter-attacks on Malacca. Javanese vessels were indeed sent out but suffered a disastrous defeat. Demak and Japara alone lost more than seventy sail.
  54. Peter Borschberg, National University of Singapore. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Fundação Oriente (2004). Peter Borschberg (ed.). Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka area and adjacent regions (16th to 18th century). Volume 14 of South China and maritime Asia (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 12. ISBN 3-447-05107-8. still others withdrew to continue business with the Javanese, Malays and Gujaratis...When the Islamic world considered counter-attacks against Portuguese Melaka, some Chinese residents may have provided ships and capital. These Chinese had their roots either in Fujian, or else may have been of Muslim descent. This group may have consisted of small factions that fled Champa after the crisis of 1471.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. Maria Suzette Fernandes Dias (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-84718-111-4.
  56. Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 114. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5.
  57. Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5.
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