Chutia people

The Sutias were the first people in Assam to use firearms. When the Ahoms annexed Sadiya, they recovered hand-cannons called Hiloi [28][29][30][31] as well as large cannons called Bor-top, Mithahulang being one of them.[32][33] Before that, the Ahoms' weapons included bows and arrows.[34] According to A History of Assam by Edward A. Gait, the first usage of gunpowder by the Ahoms dates back to their war against Turbak in 1532. Up to this time the Ahoms' weapons consisted of swords, spears and bows and arrows. The Sutias were defeated in 1523 which shows that the Ahoms learned the use of gunpowder from the Sutias. This is further corroborated by the fact that all the Hiloidari (cannonmen)[35] and most of the Hiloi-Khanikars (gunmakers) belonged to the Sutia community.[36] It is believed that the gunpowder and firearms in this part of India was of a better quality than in the rest of India. It is known that when Mir Jumla went back from Assam he took with him 675 large guns and about 4750 maunds of gunpowder in boxes because of their higher quality.

A terracotta tile of Bhismaknagar, depicting a person with a crossbow or a hand-cannon

One of the Mithaholong guns procured by the Ahoms after defeating the Chutias

Chutia people generally live in joint families, although nowadays nuclear families have also started emerging. The number of members in a joint family at times exceeded one hundred. The father is the head of the family. It is only when the family became too big and unmanageable, that married sons were allowed to have their independent establishments. Household duties are discharged by the family members with mutual understanding and co-operation, on a rotatory basis.[43]

Several families united together and formed a village. Each village had a headman called Gaon-burha. His office us hereditary. He is elected by the elders of the village, taking into account his moral integrity and intellect. The elders of the village formed a body or council called Raij-mel with the Gaonburga as its president. The council looked after any matter relating to the village. Questions of defence, crime and punishment are also under its jurisdiction. The Bar-maleki is the chief justice of a crime or punishment. For religious purposes at the village, there are other positions like the Hatula(for conducting rituals), the Bharali(care-taker of namghars and temples) and the Deori(distributing prasad and food). In a Chutia village, labour-intensive works fishing, hunting, sowing and harvesting crops, building huts or even marriages and death rites are usually done in a collective manner. The youth are also involved in a major way in society and usually serve as social workers. They are organised as Yuva Samaj or Yuvak Sangha. In certain villages, Aleng Ghar is constructed, where the young people gather together for doing social works. These houses are also popularly known as Dekachang(youth-house).

Chutiyas are originally divided into different clans/bangshas which were based on descendants of a common ancestor. These Bangshas were divided into Khels which were professional classes like Now-Holiya, Jaapi-hojiya, Lahing, Bebejia, etc. Khels were further divided into Foids.[44] Some of the major clans/Bangshas among Chutiyas are 1)Buruk, 2)Bihiya, 3)Borahi, 4)Lofai, 5)Lahual, 6)Lajum, 7)Fesuwal, 8) Uta, 9)Har, 10)Chawrok, 11)Bosha, 12)Khas, 13)Lekang, 14)Sesagharia, 15)Melleng, 16)Laopiya, 17)Kantok, 18)Doisung, 19)Diha. Some of the Khels are 1)Rupawal, 2)Lahing, 3)Deori, 4)Kari, 5)Sonowal, 6)Tiruwal, 7)Luholiya, 8)Barisuwa, 9)Kohar, 10)Kumar, 11)Gospuriya, 12)Pangiriyal, 13)Dahotiya, 14)Moliya, 15)Rupsokoliya, 16)Khanikar, 17) Naoholiya, 18)Khatowal, 19)Jaapihojiya, 20)Bebejia, 21)Hiloidhari, 22)Dhekial, 23)Baruwati, 24)Dolakasharia.

After the fall of the Chutia kingdom, the Chutia people were divided into different groups due to circumstances based on either religious inclinations or associations with other communities. Over time, Chutias divided into five important groups:[45]

• Hindu Chutia

The Hindu Chutias represented a large section of the population. These are the Chutias who were initiated by Vaishnavite saints like Shankardev, Madhavdev into Vaishnavism sect of Hinduism. They are popularly termed as Kesa-ponthi as they have been imposed certain restrictions like the use of animal meat and alcohols in their rites by the Vaishnavite community. The other group Poka-ponthi have retained their tribal customs in their original form.[46]

• Ahom Chutia

Among the Pokaponthis, the Ahom Chutias formed the major sub-division. They were termed as such as they intermarried with the Ahoms. Most of them have been absorbed into the Ahom fold over time.[47] They held various position in the Ahom kingdom's administration as seen with Momai Tamuli Borbarua, Langi Panisiya Borphukan,[48][49] Rupchandra Borbarua,[50] Kirtichandra Borbarua, Lachit Borphukan, Piyoli Borphukan, Badanchandra Borphukan, Thumlung Borgohain,[51] Banrukia Gohain(during Susenpha's reign),[52] Banlungia Gohain(during Rudra Singha's reign)[53] and many more. Even during Sukapha's reign, many Chutia families like Som-chiring[54] and Changsai[55] were absorbed into the Ahom fold. Majority of Ahoms of the Chetia clan as well as the Lahon clan originated from the Chutia community.[56]

• Borahi Chutia

It is believed that the Borahi Chutias were a sub-group of Chutias who had certain religious rites different from other Chutias. The Buranjis mention classes (khel) like the Naoboicha[57] and Hiloidari[58] as being originally Chutias and included in the Borahi fold. Moreover, the Tai word used for the Borahis was Kha-lang meaning "slaves that lived below the Chang(platform)" (the way pigs are reared in rural Assam) indicating that the term "Borahi" was a derogatory term originally used to refer to the subjugated Chutias during the early years of Ahom rule. Although most of them were absorbed into the Ahom group, some of the Chutias living in Dhemaji, Golaghat and Sibsagar districts still identify themselves as Borahi-Chutias.

• Deori Chutia

Deori Chutias were originally the priests of the Chutia people. They were retained in Sadiya by the Ahoms after the Ahom-Chutia wars. Thus, they separated from the others and later took the identity of a different tribe.[59] In the British census reports, the Deoris were termed as Deori-Chutias.[60] The community has maintained their racial traits, language, religion, folktales and traditional beliefs through the centuries.[61] They were divided into Jimochayan/Dibang-Diyongial(Dibongia), Midoyan/Tengapania, Luitugan/Borgoya.[62] The native language is retained only by the Dibongia group.

• Miri Chutia

Miri Chutias were the Chutias who lived in the bordering villages of the northern bank of Brahmaputra and fled to the Miri hills during the Ahom invasions. They intermarried with the Mishing and were subsequently absorbed by the later. They chiefly belonged to the Bihiya, Buruk (Medok) and Bebejia clans.[63] In several villages, Mishing families still offer annual homage of ‘Jal-Pinda’ to some Chutiya Mine or Chutiya grandmother which indicates that these people were originally Chutias.[64] In the past, these descendants of the Chutia aristocracy also wore their hair long, contrary to the usual custom of the Mishing tribe; this they said was the privilege of the royal family.[65] One of the two groups among the Mishing tribe, the Barogram, were referred to as Chutia-Miri which indicates that these Mishings were earlier subjects of the Chutia kings. These people include clans like Pegu (derived from Pagro), Doley (derived from Doloi), Patir (derived from Pator) indicating the Chutia influence.[66][67] There is a large area in Dhemaji district inhabited by Barogram Mishings termed as Chutia-mirigaon.

A Chutia man in his traditional attire

The traditional attire of the Chutia men includes the Chutia paguri (headgear), Chutia sula (shirt), Churia (lower garment), Gamusa/Bisuwan (scarf), Cheleng sador (Shawl) and Tongali (waist scarf). The royals and the rich in the past wore clothes made out of Muga and Paat Silk, whereas the ordinary class wore Cotton (summers) and Eri Silk (winter). The royals also used other clothing items like the Panikamoli cloth as well as the Aruwan.[68][69][70] In the ancient times, royal men wore jewelry items like Longkeru (Earrings), Mota Moni (necklace) as well as golden footwear (Paduka). The royals also used silk umbrellas with gold embroidery known as Gunakara.[71]

Some components of the male attire include:

• Chutia paguri

Chutia priest Deori with the Xatphul paguri.

There were several types of Chutia headgears or paguris in the past as per the style of tying the knots. The three primary types are Xatphul/Sarpa Paag, Ronuwa/Junga Paag and the Enajori Paag. Out of this, the Xatphul and Enajori paguri are still worn. The Xatphul type is worn by the priests/Deoris and is snake-shaped; hence the name Sarpa (snake). Today, the Chutias use this type as their traditional Chutia headgear. The Ronuwa type was worn in the battle field and can be seen in the terracota plates of Bhismaknagar as well as the Tamreswari temple.[72] The word Enajori means strong family bond.[73] The Enajori type was a commoners turban which is the one worn in Bihu dances today.

• Churia (Churu-Isa)

Terracotta plate of Bhismaknagar depicting a Chutia soldier wearing Churia.

The Chutias often wear their Churia (dhoti) short (till the knees). The Deori-Chutia word for cloth is Iñ/Isa[74][75][76](similar to the Dimasa Ri[77] and Boro Hi[78]). The word Churia is possibly derived from Churu-isa in Deori-Chutia meaning short (Churu) cloth (Isa).[79][80] The Churias used by Chutia men are very well depicted in the terracota plates of Bhismaknaagar as well as the Tamreswari temple.[81] As per Buranjis, the Ahom royals didn't allow any common man to wear dhotis till their ankles which may be the reason why Chutias donot wear it that way.[82]

• Gamusa and Bisuwan

The Gamusa is an important part of the Chutia attire and is used as a scarf. The Bisuwan (Bisu meaning "Bihu" and Wan meaning "textile")[83] is a variant of the Gamusa used during the Bihu/Bisu festival. The difference between the Gamusa and the Bisuwan is mainly the design and use. Although both the scarfs consist of red side borders, the Bisuwan consists of floral patterns as cross border at one end, instead of the regular plain red cross borders of the Gamusa. Gamusa is a regular scarf for daily use by the household. On the other hand, the Bihuwan is a special gift presented during the Bihu festival. On such occasion, respect for elders, affection for the young, love between young men and women blossom into ceremonial expression. That expression takes the form of a presentation of the bihuwan with special floral patterns.

• Tangali

Terracotta plate of Bhismaknagar showing Chutia attire Churia and Tongali.

The Tangali is a waist wrapper worn by males or used as belt to gird the waist. In the past, a white Tangali was worn by warriors in the battlefield which would turn red with blood on their return. This symbolism later made way for the red Tangali which is worn by young boys when they perform Bihu Huchori. The two ends of Tangali are trimmed with fringes and ornamented with floral motifs of coloured threads. The Tangali can be seen in the terracota plates of Bhismaknagar as well as the Tamreswari temple.[84]

• Cheleng Chador (Cheleng-Isa)

The Cheleng Chador is another important component of the Chutia attire. It is usually wrapped around the shoulders similar to a shawl and is about 9 feet in length.[85] The word Cheleng-chandor is possible derived from the word Deori-Chutia word Cheleng-Isa meaning long chest wrapper.[86][87] The Deori Bishu songs have mentions of Cheleng cloth in many instances such as:

A Chutia girl in her traditional attire Riha(Methoni), Mekhela, Chula, Gatigi and ornaments Gam kharu, Madoli and Junbiri.

Among the Chutia people, women of every age group have their own unique clothing style. Girls until puberty wear a Gamusa called Baiga as an upper garment and a Mekhela/Igu as a lower garment (waist to ankle). In the olden times, it was either made of Muga/Paat (effluent class) or cotton (common class).[88] After puberty and until marriage, the girls wear a Riha/Risa (chest wrapper)[89] instead of Baiga as the upper garment. This custom of changing the clothing style after puberty is a tradition of the tribe.[90] During marriages, the brides wear a Paat/Muga Riha along with Mekhela and Chador. The Dukothia, Chador and the Kokal-mora are signs of marriage.[91] The brides also wore Harudai Jaapi as headgear in the past.[92] A married women usually wears a mekhela, kokal-bandha (waist wrapper) as well as Gathigi (headgear) and a Chador to cover their head. The Mekhela of married women is a longer cloth which is worn up to their bosom unlike that of girls worn from the waist and downwards. The Riha of women is worn only on special occasions like Bihu, marriage ceremonies, temple visits, rituals, etc. Chutia traditional ornaments include Madoli (Chutia word), Dugdugi (Chutia word), Junbiri,‌ Thuria, and Gam-kharu.[93] It is interesting to note that the girls of the community seldom wore earrings and the Thuria earrings symbolised the marital status of a woman. For marriage, the ears of the bride were pierced and the diameter of the holes was increased so that the Thuria earrings would fit into it.

Some components of the female attire include:

• Mekhela (Igu)

The Mekhela is the most important component of the Chutia female attire. Until marriage, girls wear the mekhela from the waist downwards, which is later tied up to the bosom after marriage. The Deori-Chutia word for Mekhela is Igu[94] (similar to Rigu of Dimasas[95] and Rigwnai of Tripuri). Another cloth called Kokal-bondha (waist wrapper) is also worn above the mekhela by married women. The Chutias consider the red-embroidered Dabua-Bosa Mekhela to be their symbolic attire. Apart from the primary Dabua-bosa design, the Mekhela also consists of Buta-bosa and Phul-bosa at the lower end, which generally uses white and black threads.

• Riha (Risa)

Chutia girls wearing Riha, Mekhela and Gathigi.

Riha refers to the chest wrapper worn by Chutia women. It is derived from the Deori-Chutia word Isa[96][97] (Risa in Dimasa[98] and Tripuri[99][100][101]) The Riha is a narrow cloth as indicated by its name. It can be divided into two types. One worn by girls and the other by married women. Unmarried girls wear the Riha from the chest to the waist, while married women wear it by wrapping around the shoulder similar to the Chador. After the introduction of the blouse, the Riha has become pointless as a component of a girl's attire and is being replaced by the Chador-Blouse ensemble. But, among married women, it is still being although in a different fashion (like a Chador).[102] This discontinued use of the Riha/Risa among girls have made people believe that the Riha is only an attire of married women which isn't true. The style of wearing a Riha beneath the Chador among married women indicates that the Riha is much older. The Muga Riha/Risa forms a part of the symbolic attire of the Chutia people. Muga silk is an ancient heritage of the Chutia people. As per the Naoboicha Phukan Buranji, Muga was adopted in the Ahom courts at a later period by employing a thousand Muga producers and weavers from the Chutia community. It consists of patterns known as Kesh-bosa in both the ends. This is evident from the Chutia Bihu song, "Loskosi loskosi, Riha lobi Kesh basi". There are several types of folds involved in wearing a Chutia Riha (as a chest wrapper by girls). These include Japoni, Lahi-bhaj, Kakhori-bhaj, Khamusia-bhaj, Baiga and Kuwum.

• Gathigi

Gathigi is the headgear of Chutia women which consists of a Gamusa tied around the hair. The word Gathigi is derived from Gathi which means "knot" in Assamese language. It is mostly worn to protect the hair from dirt and also acts as a hair-covering while cooking. It is mostly worn to protect the hair from dirt and also acts as a hair-covering while cooking. The Bihu songs well establish the historical link between the traditional red-white Gamusa with Sadiya.

• Dukothia, Chador and Kokalmora

An old Chutia woman wearing the Mekhela, Kokal-mora and Dukothia.

The Chutia Dukothia is a cloth of 2 kathi or 6 feet in length and wrapped around the head and the upper body, while the Chador is about 8–9 feet in length and wrapped from the waist to the upper body and head. Wearing the Dukothia or Chador is compulsory for married women in front of elders or on religious occasions. These are mostly made of cotton or endi silk. The Kokal-mara, on the other hand, is a waist wrapper cloth. It is known as Joka-Chiba in the Deori-Chutia language and is worn above the mekhela and tied to the waist. The Dukothia, Chador along with the Kokal-mora symbolises the marital status of a woman. In spite of this, some girls wear the Dukothia as a scarf too.

• Hasoti and Dabua Katari

Chutia Dabua Katari which is tied to the Hasoti.

The Hasoti and Dabua Katari are both age-old heritage of the Chutia tribe and form an important component of the Chutia female attire. Hasoti is a small red handkerchief which is tied to the Mekhela. On the other end of the Hasoti, a pocket clasp knife called Dabua Katari is tied. It is used by Chutia women to do daily chores like cutting areca nuts or betel nut leaves. The Dab/Dabua Katari is also found among Boros and Dimasas which they call as Daba knife. The Dab Katari finds mention in Deori Bishu songs as:

• Harudai Jaapi

The Jaapi has always been an integral part of Chutia heritage. The Chutia brides wore a Sorudoi Jaapi during marriage ceremonies which were continued up until recently.[103] As per historical text, the last Chutia king Nitipal had given two gold and silver embroidered Japis to the Ahom king as gifts in his attempts for a treaty.[104][105] Besides this, after annexing Sadiya, the Ahom king received much treasure and bounty among which included Jaapis.[106] During the Ahom rule, Jaapi-hajiya Khel (guild for making Jaapis) was monopolised by Chutias, which indicate that they were experts in weaving Japis.[107] There is mention of Jaapi in Deori Bishu songs as:

The Chutia people reside mostly in the interior places of Upper Assam mostly on the banks of the rivers. The community is one of the reserved types and prefer living in isolation. The habitation pattern is based mainly on river routes. The villages are connected by a road which runs parallel to the river. A Chutia village usually consists from at least 60 to about 140 families. Earlier each family housed about 100 individuals in joint families,[108] but over time nuclear families have also started replacing joint families.

The Chutias are used to two kinds of dwelling - one is the grounded house and the other is the raised house(also known as Chang ghar). The materials used to build houses are mostly perishable ones like bamboo, wood, reeds and thatching grass. In the past, the Chutia royals lived in brick houses as evident from the ruins of Sadiya and other places. In every house, one can find a Bor ghar(consisting of a hall, fireplace and Akhal/kitchen) and a Maral ghar(bedroom). The Maral ghar is built at the centre of the house. There are other houses like Bharal ghar(granary),Goral ghar(poultry house) and a Guhali ghar (cowshed) in every family. There is a saying among the Chutias,"Pube Bharal, Pachhime Goral, Uttare Saru and Dakhine Goru". This indicates that the Bharal ghar was located in the eastern direction, the Goral ghar in the west, while the Bor ghar(Soru) and Guhali ghar in the north and south directions respectively. There is a long poduli (route) that connects the house to the village road and ultimately to the river-side road. The building of a house is known as ghar-saja. People in Chutia villages build their houses in a collectively. Whenever someone wants to build a house, he invites the villagers in an appointed day to help him. This get-together is termed as Haria luwa. Hari luwa also takes place in other social events which require large manpower like marriages, fishing or even during rice cultivation. After the house is completed, the household treats the villagers with rice beer, jalpan(snacks), etc.

The rituals of the Chutia community have a tribal-tantric folk religion base with an influence of Hinduism. The spread of neo-Vaishnavite religion brought some reforms among a section of Chutias like who are now known as Kesa-ponthi. They are named as such because they have been imposed certain restrictions like use of animal meat and alcohol in their rites. Others who have retained the age-old customs in its original form are termed as Poka-ponthis. Some of the rituals include Sabahs like Holita loguwa, Aai, Panitula Borsabah, Dangoria, Borsarakia, Lakhimi/Minuchi Adora, Gorokhia, Khuti, Jal Devota, Jal kuwari, Apeswari, Kalika; Hewa/Pujas like Deo-kuber, Suvasani, Moh jokh Raati Hewa, Haun puja, and other rituals like Bhekulir Biya, Na-khuwa, Nangol dhua, Bhoral pitha dia, Nangol pitha dia.[109] A few of the rituals are discussed below.

The Deo-kuber of the Chutia community

The Deo-kuber ritual is a tribal-tantrik form of ancestral worship. It is also known as Deo-kuber Holita loguwa hokam as earthen lamps are lighted in the name of the god of wealth Kuber as well as Kundi. The other Bodo origin tribes like Boros, Koch and Rabhas also celebrate a similar festival which they call as Kuber Brai. During the rule of the Chutia kings, this ritual was often organised for the welfare of the state. In this ceremony, the religious symbols of Kuber god, i.e. Golden cat and Golden sword-shield are placed at a pedestal and worshipped. During this ceremony, rice beer(Chuje), Handoh guri(ground rice), puffed rice (Akhoi), areca nut, betel leaves, several kinds of Pitha (Khula dia, Tel Diya, etc), duck meat and posola(a dish made of banana stem) are prepared. A pair of a male and female duck is sacrificed in the name of Gira-Girasi (ancestral deities) and smoked meat is offered along with two servings of Chuje to the deities. After the Deori completes his prayers and rituals, the duck is prepared into a dish and distributed among the people as offerings from God.[110]

The Dangoria is considered to be a village deity among the Chutias. According to the ancient beliefs, his spirit lives under the largest tree of the village and is supposed to protect the villagers from all troubles. Children are not allowed to go near the tree after the sunsets. The villagers believe that the spirit of the Dangoria roams around the village at night holding his Dang (stick). His spirit warns the people who are likely to face trouble in the upcoming days by hitting the gate of the family with his stick. If the household hears the noise, they organise the Dangoria ritual. The ritual is known as "Rangason" in Deori-Chutia language.

The Dangoria Sabah of the Chutia community

The ritual is generally organised near the tree where the spirit is believed to reside. Nowadays, many people organise it in their homes instead. The ritual is performed in several ways. The Poka-panthi sect offers rice wine (Chuje) along with meat while the Kesa-panthi sect offers rice-powder (pitha-guri), milk-pudding (payakh) and bananas. The Poka-panthis have three types of Dangoria rituals (Kala Sorai, Ronga sorai and Tinitia Sorai) according to the type of bird being sacrificed. The ritual is mostly performed during the evening time. In this ritual, first earthen lamps are lit under the tree. Then, an offering of chuje or payakh is made along with four pairs of betel leaf and areca nuts, Banana Khar and vegetable curry. The Poka-panthis also sacrifice the birds and cook the meat along with Korai guri. Later, the priests pray to the spirit of the Dangoria deity and bless the household. After that,‌ the food is eaten and the ritual ends.[111]

The Apeshwari Sabha is organised to worship Apeshwari Ai (a form of Kechai-khati goddess). Whenever a child in a household grows weak or an infant can't speak his first words, it is believed that the goddess has cursed the family. Therefore, in order to ask forgiveness for their sins, the family conducts the ritual. This ritual is also found among the Deoris and call the deity as Apeswari or Yoi Midi.

The Apeswari Sabah of the Chutia community

In this ritual, the house is first clean thoroughly and all the used clothes are washed. Then, some girls, as well as old women from the village, are called to the household. They are named as Gopinis and are made to sit in a circle in the courtyard. After that, the family brings in the offerings which include rice-powder (pitha-guri), unpasteurised milk (ewa gakhir) and bananas. Then, at the front of the women, a sieve (Saloni/Dala) is placed on top of which the offerings are arranged on a banana leaf (agoli kolpat) and a white cloth. Next, earthen lamps (saki) are lit and the area is decorated with flowers and betel nuts. The Gopinis then recite prayers (Apeshwari naam) to the goddess so as to bless the household especially the child. The family is asked to come and pray to the goddess and the Gopinis themselves bless the child/infant. After this is over, a set of offering is separated for the goddess and offered to her at the backyard of the house or in an open field. The rest is given to the Gopinis as offerings for their service.[112]

The Suvasani ritual is mostly carried out at night in the months of April/May for the well-being of family/village members. Suvasani Ai is a household deity (a form of the goddess Kechai-khati). During ancient times, the front room of the house was kept for the worship of this household deity. The members of the family generally treated the room as a protected room. In the ritual, first, the Deori (priest) prays to the goddess Suvasani for the welfare of the family/village and then distributes prasad along with holy water to the people for purifying their souls. Then, ducks are sacrificed by the priest with the help of other people. After the sacrifice is over, the male members of the family/village get together and organise a feast. This ritual is also found among the Tengaponia clan of the Deoris and call the deity as Suvasani or Yanyo Midi. Due to the influence of Neo-Vaishnava faith, a large number of Chutias have either left performing the ritual or have replaced the duck with an ash gourd. [113]