Marine protected areas of South Africa

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a marine protected area as:

A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated, and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.[1]

A marine protected area (MPA) is a protected area of sea or estuary. These areas can range from wildlife refuges to research facilities.[4] MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources.[5] Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. In some situations (such as with the Phoenix Islands Protected Area), MPAs also provide revenue for countries, potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish.[6]

As of August 2016 there are more than 13,650 MPAs, encompassing 2.07% of the world's oceans, with half of that area – encompassing 1.03% of the world's oceans – receiving complete "no-take" designation.[7]

If there is no defined long-term goal for conservation and ecological recovery and extraction of marine resources occurs, the IUCN does not recognise a region as a marine protected area.[8] The purposes stated for declaring South African marine protected areas include:[9]

• Contribution towards a national and global representative system of marine protected areas by providing protection to benthic and pelagic ecosystems in various regions, including coastal habitats such as sandy beaches, rocky shores and estuaries offshore habitats such as soft sediment and reef systems, gravel, mud, sandy, and rocky habitats, shelf edge, submarine canyons and slope habitats, seamount and associated deep sea ecosystems, and open ocean pelagic habitats.
• Providing protection for sites of special sensitivity and sites that are critically endangered
• Providing large contiguous conservation areas, and links between inshore marine habitats with those further offshore, and providing contiguous conservation areas between marine, estuarine and terrestrial habitats.
• Protecting threatened seabed ecosystems, such as mud habitats, untrawled rocky shelf habitat and untrawled shelf edge areas.
• Conserving and protecting the biodiversity and ecological processes associated with these ecosystems, including threatened seabird species, threatened fish species and economically important invertebrate species.
• Providing an appropriate environment for research and monitoring of ecosystem health and biodiversity
• Contribute to sustainable marine and coastal ecotourism by zonation for activities which yield socio-economic benefits and protecting and promoting scenic areas and their eco-tourism opportunities
• Facilitating fisheries management by protecting spawning grounds and spawning stock, nursery,foraging, aggregation and refuge areas, allowing stock recovery, and improving abundance in adjacent areas for overexploited species , linefish and sharks;
• Facilitating sustainable use of linefish, rock lobster, abalone and intertidal resources
• Protection the biota or specific species and the environment, biodiversity and ecosystems that support them, including vulnerable benthic habitats, tropical and cold water coral reefs, canyons which are coelacanth habitat and important migratory corridors for seabirds, turtles, sharks and other fish
• Providing reference sites and environments for research and monitoring, including areas in good ecological condition and areas which may be indicators of impacts of climate change, and allowing for research on ecosystem impacts and recovery, and habitat requirements of economically important species
• Protecting areas of important cultural heritage, including archeological middens and fish traps, South African National Heritage sites and World Heritage sites.
• Conserving and protecting a fossilised forest.

MPAs have been shown to protect biodiversity and stocks of economically important marine organisms, and are also considered to protect cultural heritage, provide educational and recreational opportunities, provide sustainable employment, and stimulate tourism, and may assist with resilience to climate change.[3]

Several early MPAs were declared in terms of the Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998,[11] and they are currently declared through the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 2003[12]

The South African Association for Marine Biological Research (SAAMBR) was established by marine scientists who in 1947 recognised the unique character of the northern Zululand coast, which was later described as the Delagoa inshore ecoregion. The Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI) recognised that protection was necessary for effective conservation and in collaboration with the Natal Parks Board (now Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife), established the St. Lucia Marine Reserve which was proclaimed in 1979, followed by the proclamation of the Maputaland Marine Reserve in 1986. These are now consolidated in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, which was proclaimed as South Africa’s first World Heritage Site in 1999. After nearly 20 years of work the Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area was proclaimed in 2004, along with the Pondoland Marine Protected Area, at the time the largest of South Africa's MPAs, and several others.[2] By 2018, South Africa had 25 formally declared Marine Protected Areas, of which 24 are in the coastal waters of the continental territory, and one is in the waters of the Prince Edward Islands in the Southern Ocean.[1]

On 24 October 2018, 20 new MPAs were approved by Cabinet,[13] and were proclaimed by the South African government on 24 May 2019 [14] This increased the area of the continental protected areas to 5%. To comply with the goals of the United Nations, another 5% of South African oceanic waters must be protected by 2020.[1]

The coastal MPAs constitute 0.43% of the continental EEZ, and 0.16% of the EEZ is no-take zone. Offshore ecosystems are the least protected ecosystems of territory under South African management.[1]

• Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998[11]
• National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 10 of 2004[15]
• National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, No. 24 of 2008[16]
• National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 2003[12]

Zonation of marine protected areas in South Africa is classified by the Marine Living Resources Act[17] and the National Environmental Management Act.[18] An MPA may be divided into one or more types of zonation. Restricted and controlled areas are common.[17]

Restricted area

Also known as a no-take zone, is a part of a marine protected area where extraction and harvesting of any marine and plant life is prohibited.[17]

Controlled area

Also known an open area, is a part of an MPA where extraction and harvesting of marine life is allowed but restricted to specific activities, species, and catch limits, and other commercial activities, subject to a specific permit, basically a form of taxation, issued for that activity for a specified time period, usually a year. These activities include spearfishing (on breathhold), angling, scuba diving, snorkelling for mollusc extraction, boating, commercial diving, salvage operations, commercial fishing, whale watching, shark cage diving or filming.[17]

Wilderness area

Part of a marine protected area where no fishing may take place, but ecotourism activities that do not affect wilderness characteristics and attributes may be authorised.[19]

Sanctuary area

Part of a marine protected area where no fishing or any other activity contemplated in terms of section 48A(1) of the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, No. 57 of 2003 may take place, except for scientific research purposes. This prohibits fishing, collection or destruction of any fauna or flora, dredging or extraction of mineral materials, discharging or depositing any waste or pollutants, disturbing, altering or damaging the natural environment or water quality, removing seawater, conducting any activity which may adversely affect the ecosystem, constructing any building or other structure, marine aquaculture, bio-prospecting, sinking any platform, vessel or structure, prospecting for or extracting fossil fuels.[18]

The listed MPAs were individually proclaimed. Some were later consolidated with adjacent MPAs and may not still be generally referred to by the original name.

• Addo Elephant National Park Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Nelson Mandela Bay, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Agulhas Bank Complex Marine Protected Area – An offshore marine conservation area south of Cape Agulhas in South Africa (South of Cape Agulhas, Western Cape, 2019)[20]
• Agulhas Front Marine Protected Area – A offshore marine conservation area off the Eastern Cape in South Africa's EEZ (South of Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Agulhas Muds Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area offshore of the Western Cape in South Africa (South of Cape Agulhas, Western Cape. 2019)[20]
• Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area at Aliwal Shoal off the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, 2004)[21]
• Aliwal Shoal Offshore Marine Protected Area – 2019 extension to the Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area (South Coast, KwaZulu-Natal, 2019)[20]
• Amathole (2001)[21]
• Amathole Offshore Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape in South Africa (East London, Eastern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Benguela Muds Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the Western Cape province of South Africa (West of Saldanha Bay, Western Cape,2019)[20]
• Betty's Bay Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Western Cape in South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Bird Island Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape in South Africa now part of the Addo Elephant National Park (Eastern Cape, 2004)[21]
• Browns Bank Corals Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area on the continental slope of South Africa (South of Cape Town, Western Cape, 2019)([20]
• Cape Canyon Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the Western Cape in South Africa (West of Cape Columbine, Western Cape, 2019)[20]
• Castle Rock Marine Protected Area, previously known as the Millers Point Marine Reserve, now part of Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Childs Bank Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the west coast of South Africa (West of Namaqualand, Western Cape, 2019)[20]
• De Hoop Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area on the south coast of the Western Cape of South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Dwesa-Cwebe Marine Protected Area – A coastal marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Eastern Cape, 2000)[21]
• Goukamma Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area the Western Cape in South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Helderberg Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Western Cape in South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Hluleka Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Eastern Cape, 2000)[21]
• iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in northern kwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal)
• iSimangaliso Offshore Marine Protected Area – Large 2019 extension to the iSimangaliso marine protected area (North Coast, KwaZulu-Natal, 2019)[20]
• Jutten Island Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area (in region) in South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Langebaan lagoon in the Western Cape province of South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Malgas Island Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area on the west coast in the Western Cape province in South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Maputaland Marine Protected Area (KwaZulu-Natal, 2000)[21]
• Marcus Island Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Western Cape in South Africa (Western Cape)[21]
• Mkambati (2000)[21]
• Namaqua Fossil Forest Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the northwest cost of the Northern Cape province of South Africa (Off Kleinzee, Namaqualand, Northern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Namaqua National Park Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in Namaqualand in the Northern Cape, in South Africa (Off Namaqualand, Northern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Orange Shelf Edge Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the Northern Cape in South Africa (Off Port Nolloth, Northern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Pondoland Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa (Eastern Cape, 2004)[21]
• Port Elizabeth Corals Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Offshore of Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the waters of the Prince Edward Islands in the southern Indian Ocean (Southern Ocean, 2013)[21]
• Protea Banks Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the coastal waters of southern kwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (South Coast, KwaZulu-Natal, 2019)[20]
• Robben Island Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area around and offshore of Robben Island in Table Bay in the Western Cape province in South Africa (Cape Town, Western Cape, 2019)[20]
• Robberg Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area around the Robberg peninsula in South Africa (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Sardinia Bay Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Eastern Cape, 2000)[21]
• Sixteen Mile Beach Marine Protected Area (Western Cape, 2000)[21]
• Southeast Atlantic Seamounts Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the South Atlantic in the South African EEZ(South of Knysna, Western Cape, 2019)[20]
• Southwest Indian Seamounts Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area south of Stilbaai in the Western Cape in South Africa (South of Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, 2019)[20]
• Stilbaai Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area in the Western Cape in South Africa (Western Cape, 2008)[21]
• Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area around the Cape Peninsula in South Africa (Western Cape, 2004)[21]
• Trafalgar Marine Protected Area (Eastern Cape, 2000)[21]
• Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area on the south coast of South Africa (Eastern Cape, 2000)[21]
• uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area – A marine conservation area off the coast of kwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, 2019)[20]
• Walker Bay Whale Sanctuary – A marine conservation area in the Western Cape province in South Africa (Western Cape, 2001, seasonal)[21]

The 2019 proclamation of 20 new marine protected areas extended protection for the first time to51 previously unprotected ecosystem types. This reduced the number of unprotected ecosystem types from 47% to 13%. The quality of protection is variable. Insufficient area of some ecosystems is protected. In other cases legal and illegal fishing, waste water discharge and other pressures degrade the protection. Improvements in governance are urgently needed, including developing and implementing management plans, better financing, and improving liaison end compliance.[22]^:xxxvii

• Compendium of South African Environmental Legislation, 2nd edition